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VETERINARY STUDIES 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
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THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

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VETERINARY STUDIES 



FOR 



AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS 



BY 

M. H. REYNOLDS, B.S.A., D.V.M., M.D. 

PROFESSOK OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 
MEMBER INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON CONTROL OP BOVINE 
TUBERCULOSIS ; MEMBER AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL 
ASSOCIATION ; MEMBER AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCI- 
ATION ; MEMBER AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH 
ASSOCIATION : ETC. 



jNTeto gork 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1910 

All rights reserved 



^^ 






% 



COPYKIGHT, 19 lO, 

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1910. 



NarixjooO '^vzsi 

J. S. CusMng Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



CCU^78444 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 

During ten years experience in teaching veterinary sub- 
jects to agricultural students, certain difficulties have been 
constantly encountered. Others doing this work have 
probably had similar experience. There has been the 
difficulty of imperfect training, or entire lack of training, 
in physiology and other subjects which medical men 
recognize as fundamental. There is always present the 
difficulty of presenting a technical subject in untechnical 
language; difficulty in securing satisfactory illustrations; 
and difficulty in giving the kind and character of veteri- 
nary work which is generally demanded and conceded 
as necessary, without giving our students a sort of train- 
ing which will turn some of them into unqualified prac- 
titioners. There has been serious difficulty in covering, 
without a textbook, a satisfactory amount of ground. 
Many students do not take notes well, and hence for 
several years I have been distributing mimeographed 
lecture notes to my classes. 

During this time I have been more and more impressed 
with the belief that a textbook, wisely illustrated and 
carefully edited for its legitimate use, would enable me 
to cover very much more ground within the available 
time. 

The style of editing that has been adopted was selected 
with a view to presenting the subject matter to students 
in a conspicuous and easily grasped way. This must be 
our excuse and answer to criticism which the expert 
printer may legitimately make. 

This work has been written more particularly as a text 
for veterinary classes in agricultural colleges; but it is 



vi PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 

hoped that it may prove helpful also to stockmen who 
are not able to attend our agricultural colleges, but who 
care to know more of the animal machines with which 
they are working. I take this occasion to deprecate the 
blind home dosing of stock to which farmers and stock- 
men are very much inclined. The student should realize 
the impossibility of writing a prescription that will fit 
all cases of a certain disease, and if a good student he 
will hesitate to risk the use of medicines of which he 
knows very little in diseases of which he knows less. 

Lecture notes which have been collected during a period 
of ten years have formed the basis for this work, and I 
am now unable, in many cases, to give credit to authori- 
ties that have been consulted, where credit is fairly due. 

Illustrations have not been used in any case merely as 
pictures. Every one is intended to illustrate something 
and make that illustration as impressive as possible. 

Suggestions to the teacher. It is not intended that this, 
as a textbook, should entirely supplant the lecture work. 
On the contrary, nearly every lecture may be supple- 
mented to advantage and so give opportunity for origi- 
nality and the greatest effectiveness. It will be readily 
understood that certain subjects are of very great im- 
portance in some states, and unimportant in others. Each 
teacher should add what he thinks best for his grade of 
pupils and his local needs. 

When time permits much time can be profitably spent 
on more extended anatomy work, especially for students 
who wish advanced live stock work. It can be readily 
illustrated and easily impressed : for instance, that smooth 
or rough hips depend upon a fraction of an inch, more or 
less, on the external angle of the ilium ; and that high 
or low withers are merely slight variations in the length 
of the superior spinus processes of the dorsal vertebrae ; 
and that conformation depends upon the bony skeleton 
and muscular developments. 

Much time with considerable actual practice should be 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION vii 

given to the study of unsoundness ; to common forms of 
lameness, and the types of conformation which tend 
toward these unfortunate conditions. Common irregulari- 
ties of the teeth are not discussed in these pages at all, 
and yet the general subject is an important and practical 
one, and one that is easily illustrated in classroom. These 
are giv^en merely as suggestions and to impress the fact 
that this text is not expected to cover the entire field of 
veterinary teaching for all agricultural colleges. 

I respectfully suggest that teachers should insist upon 
careful study of illustrations. In my own class work 
I find the constant difficulty that students glance at the 
illustrations carelessly and hurriedly, and thus fail to get 
the benefit which they might easily have from good illus- 
trations. Students may be selected at random and asked 
to draw upon the board, from memory, illustrations from 
the lesson for that day. After a few practice lessons of 
this kind, students easily learn how to study textbook 
illustrations. 

M. H. REYNOLDS. 

University of Minnesota, 
October, 1903. 



PEEFACE TO SECOND EDITION" 

I WISH to express my appreciation of the very kind 
reception which has been given to Veterinary Studies 
by my fellow teachers in agricultural colleges, by agri- 
cultural papers, and by stockmen. 

There have been no material alterations in this edition, 
but I am planning to embody criticisms and suggestions 
in revising for the third edition. 

M. H. REYNOLDS. 
University of Minnesota, 
January, 1904. 



PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION" 

I WISH to thank the many fellow teachers who have 
shown appreciation by continuing to use this textbook 
in spite of very evident need of revision. I wish to em- 
phasize again the fact that Veterinary Studies is in- 
tended to quite an extent as a teacher's outline. It is not 
intended to give full instruction. Each teacher must add 
material as he may think wise, or leave out entire subjects 
according to local needs and his pupils. I find that very 
many pupils taking veterinary class work in agricultural 
schools need badly review work on physiology. The neces- 
sity for a practical working knowledge of physiology is 
self-evident. Some knowledge of anatomy is plainly neces- 
sary in order that disease processes may be located, and 
that students may understand animal conformation. Some 
elementary pathology is absolutely necessary in order that 
pupils may have some understanding of what disease pro- 
cesses really are. 

Causes and prevention. Causes and prevention of dis- 
eases should be considered as of paramount importance, 
and only a comparatively few carefully selected diseases 
should be presented. These should be diseases which are 
uniform in symptoms and history and therefore easily 
recognized, and of such diseases only those that are rather 
easily and simply treated or are preventable. 

There may be perhaps an exception to this, and that 
is for students living where stock owners do not have 
access to trained veterinarians. In such case it is a matter 
of plain common sense that they must simply do the best 
they can for themselves. 

Credit is due Dr. H. T. Kinsley for assistance in revis- 
ing " copy " for the chapters on pathology. 

M. H. EEYl^OLDS. 

University of Minnesota, 
August, 1910. 



CONTENTS 

ANATOMY 

LECTURE PAGE 

I. ANATOMY 

Bones. — Kinds, peculiarities, development, composition. 

Head. — Face, cranial, and hyoid bones; dentition of horses, 

table ; dentition of cattle, table ; estimating age by teeth ; 

original application 1 

11. OSTEOLOGY 

Spinal column. — General characteristics of vertebrse. Cervi- 
cal, dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrse. 
Sternum. Ribs, practical application 6 

III. FRONT LIMB 

Shoulder, arm, forearm, and foot — bones of . . . <, 10 

IV. POSTERIOR LIMB 

Pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot — bones of; original observations . 13 

V. ARTICULATIONS 

General groups, examples ; varieties of freely movable ; im- 
movable ; slightly movable. 
Structures at joints; articulations described . . . .17 

VL MUSCULAR SYSTEM 

Peculiar property of muscle; kinds, classification, parts, micro- 
scopic structure. Source of heat and power, application . 21 

VII. NERVOUS SYSTEM 

General function ; nerve centers ; nerve fibers. 

Cerebrospinal system. — Brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord, spinal 

nerves. 
Sympathetic system. — Composition, ganglia, sympathetic nerves, 

practical application 25 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

LECTtJEE PAGE 

YIII. CIRCULATION 

Blood. — Circulatory apparatus ; course of the blood, blood 

supply of the body, principal arteries and veins. 
Lymphatic system. — Parts, function 32 

IX. RESPIRATION 

Definition, stages, parts, purpose, respiratory apparatus, prac- 
tical application 38 

X. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 

Definition, organs of digestion, anatomy of each, practical exer- 
cise .43 

XI. PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 

Definition of digestion ; food groups, course and history of each. 
Practical application and suggestions . . . . .49 

XIL URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS 

Urinary organs. — Structure, function, and physiological opera- 
tion of each. 

Mammary glands. — Anatomy, function, products, blood sup- 
ply, nerve supply, and nerve control, practical suggestions 53 

XIIL FOOT 

Bones, horny hoof, matrix, plantar cushion, back tendons, good 
foot described, practical application . . . » . 59 



PATHOLOGY 

XIV. PATHOLOGY 

Hypersemia (congestion), inflammation, fever, heat production 
and expenditure, symptoms of fever, results of fever . . " 65 

XV. PATHOLOGY 

Hemorrhage, dropsy, hypertrophy, atrophy, degenerations and 
infiltrations, collapse, syncope, death 70 

XVL WOUNDS 

Healing, and development of new blood vessels. 
Healing of osseous, cartilage, and nerve tissues. New tissue. 
How skin re-covers a surface 73 



CONTENTS 



XI 



LECTURE 

XVII. 



WOUNDS 

Bad treatment, bleeding, sewing, bandaging, washing, dry 
treatment, maggots, suggestions 77 



CAUSE AND PREVENTION 

XVIII. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

Contagium. — The individual bacterium, plagues in history, 
dissemination, development of outbreaks, body entrance, 
method of injury, destroyed in nature, suggestions . . 81 

XIX. DISINFECTION 

Purpose, sources of infection, thoroughness, attendants, how 
to burn a carcass. Common disinfectants, and methods 
of disinfection 86 

XX. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

Heredity. — Theory, in-and-in breeding. 

Air. — Impurities, relation to disease, standards of purity, 
ventilation, practical application 90 

XXL CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

Ventilation. — Stable air, necessity, unventilated air, natural 
forces, air currents, outlets, amount needed ... 93 

XXII. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

Ventilation. — Space, location, stable construction for ventila- 
tion 100 

XXIII. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

Food. — Excess, deficiency, bulk, quality, balance, intervals, 

parasites, changes. 
Water. — Excess, deficiency, parasites, sewage, intervals, 

practical application 103 

XXIV. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

Parasitism. -^ General classes, how nourished, effect on host, 
general prevention, general treatment. 

External parasites. — Mite diseases, causes, classification, gen- 
eral treatment, general prevention 107 



Xll CONTENTS 

/ 

LECTtTKE PAGE 

XXV. DISEASES — PARASITIC 

Sheep scab. — Body scab, foot scab, head scab, general pre- 
vention, general symptoms, treatment, dips, dipping, 
disinfection 112 

XXVI. DISEASES — PARASITIC 

Horse mange. — Cause, symptoms, treatment. 

Cattle mange. — Cause, symptoms, treatment . . .121 

XXVII. EXTERNAL PARASITES 

Lice, ticks, ringworm. 

Internal parasites. — Bots, roundworms, tapeworms, treat- 
ment 125 

XXVIII. NODULE DISEASE OF SHEEP 

General history, cause, injury, diagnosis, treatment, pre- 
vention 131 

XXIX. STOMACH WORM (SHEEP) 

Parasite, life history, symptoms, treatment. Drenching 
sheep, management of infected flock, prevention . . 136 

XXX. VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS, NASAL GRUB, 
AND CATARRH 

Verminous bronchitis. — Definition, life history of parasite, 

symptoms, treatment, prevention. 
Nasal grub. — Cause, life history, symptoms, treatment. 
Catarrh. — Simple catarrh defined, causes, prevention, treat- 
ment 141 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

XXXL ACTINOMYCOSIS 

Description, relation to public health, parts involved, treat- 
ment . .146 

XXXII. ANTHRAX 

History, distribution, susceptible animals, cause, transmis- 
sion, introduction and spread, incubation, symptoms, 
post mortem, diagnosis, treatment 152 

XXXIIL SYMPTOMATIC ANTHRAX (BLACKLEG) 

Definition, cause, symptoms, post mortem, prevention, vac- 
cination 157 



CONTENTS xiii 



LECTURB PAGE 

XXXIV. FOOT ROT OF SHEEP 

Symptoms, differential diagnosis, simple foot rot, treat- 
ment, prevention, foul foot, treatment .... 160 

XXXV. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE 

Definition, symptoms, dissemination, prevention, treat- 
ment . 164 

XXXVL GLANDERS 

Susceptible animals, caases, incubation, symptoms, acute 
cases, chronic cases, farcy, diagnosis, prevention, treat- 
ment 166 

XXXVII. HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA 

Etiology, history and development, symptoms, post 

mortem, summary, meningeal type. 
Brief study by table of hemorrhagic septicaemia, anthrax, 

symptomatic anthrax, and cerebrospinal meningitis . 171 

XXXVIII. HOG CHOLERA 

Definition, symptoms, autopsy, cause, how scattered, vac- 
cination, common mistakes 171 

XXXIX. TEXAS FEVER 

Economic importance, causes, transmission, suscepti- 
bility, incubation, symptoms, post mortem, prognosis, 
treatment, prevention, tick extermination, preventive 
inoculation ■, 187 

XL. TUBERCULOSIS 

Prevalence, cause, modes of infection, structures affected, 
symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, summary, 
disposition of tuberculous cattle ..... 195 

XLL TUBERCULIN TEST 

Tuberculin, effect on health, accuracy, method of test, 
importance to breeders, diagnosis .... 202 

DIETETIC DISEASES 

XLIL AZOTURIA 

Prevalence, history, parts affected, duration, causes, symp- 
toms, prevention, treatment, prognosis .... 207 



xiv CONTENTS 

LECTUKE PAGE 

XLIIL HOVEN OR BLOAT 

Definition, causes, symptoms, treatment, prevention , . 213 

XLIV. CHOKE 

Explanation, symptoms, prevention, treatment . . . 217 

XLV. HEAVES 

Definition, cause, symptoms, prevention, post mortem, treat- 
ment .221 

XL VI. LAMINITIS OR FOUNDER 

Definition, symptoms, cause, pathology, termination, treat- 
ment 225 

XLVn. LYMPHANGITIS 

Cause, symptoms, prevention, treatment .... 228 

XLVIII. PARTURIENT PARALYSIS (MILK FEVER) 

Causes, Schmidt theory, symptoms, prevention, treatment, 
prognosis 231 

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 

XLIX. LAMENESS 

Definition, locating the lameness. 

From hony diseases. — Bony growths, splints, spavins, ring- 
bones, sidebones, etc. 

From synovial membranes. — Wind puffs, bog spavins, thor- 
oughpins, open joint, curb, capped hock .... 237 

L. SOUNDNESS 

Unsoundness. — Definition, normal conditions ; methods of 
examination, common forms of unsoundness . . . 243 

LL COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE 

Rheumatism, posterior paralysis, congestion of the lungs, 
quinsy — cause, symptoms, treatment of each. Drench- 
ing swine 249 

OBSTETRICS 

LIL OBSTETRICS 

Organs described, normal periods of gestation. 
Accidents of pregnancy. — Sporadic abortions, infectious 
abortions, preventive treatment, symptoms, results . .253 



CONTENTS XV 

LECTTTRE PAGE 

LIII. INFECTIOUS ABORTION 

Causes, dissemination, infection, effect, diagnosis, prevention, 
management of aborting herd, disinfection, medical treat- 
ment 258 

LIV. OBSTETRICS 

Accidents of pregnancy. — Retention of fetus, volvulus, or twist. 

Accidents of parturition. — Germ infection, inflammation of the 
uterus, retention of the afterbirth, hemorrhage. Garget, 
cause, symptoms, prevention, treatment . . . . . 264 

LY. OBSTETRICS 

Difl&cult parturition, nature's plan, normal presentations, causes 
of difficulty, common faulty presentations, aid, suggestions, 
various operations, Caesarian section 272 



MEDICINES 

LVI. COMMON MEDICINES 

Common measurements; giving medicines. Common medi- 
cines, as to physiological effects, doses and uses . . . 278 

LVII. COMMON MEDICINES 

Certain common medicines, as to physiological effects, doses, 
and uses 282 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Skeleton. B.A.L 



Clarke , 
Clarke 



Chauveau 
Chauveau 



1. 

2. Horse Skull. Chauveau .... 

3. Teeth of Horse 6 Years Old, Lower Jaw 

4. Teeth of Horse 8 Years Old, Lower Jaw. 

5. Teeth of Horse 20 Years Old, Lower Jaw. 

6. Grinding Surface of Molars. Huidekoper 

7. Typical Cervical Vertebra. Chauveau . 

8. Typical Dorsal Vertebra. Front View. 

9. Typical Lumbar Vertebra. Front View. 

10. Lateral View of the Sacrum. Chauveau 

11. Anterior Limb of the Horse. Chauveau 

12. Posterior Limb of the Horse. Chauveau 

13. Voluntary Muscle. Reynolds 

14. Muscle Fibers. Hemes 

15. Nerve Cells and Nerve Fibers. After Chauveau 

16. Cerebrospinal Nervous System. Magnin 

17. Spinal Cord and Brain in Diagram. Reynolds 

18. Relation of the Sympathetic and Cerebrospinal Syste 

Diagrammatic. Chauveau .... 

19. Circulation, General View. Magnin 

20. Circulation, Diagrammatic. No. 1, Reynolds; No. 2, aft 

21. Respiration in Diagram. Reynolds 

22. Stomach of the Horse. External and Internal Views. 

23. Stomach of the Cow. After Chauveau . 

24. Section of Horse Kidney. Chauveau 

25. Urinary Apparatus in Diagram. Reynolds 

26. One Quarter and Teat of the Cow's Udder. Thanhoffer 

27. Milk Vesicles and Outlet Ducts. Chauveau 

28. Bones of the Horse's Foot. Chauveau 

29. The Hoof. Chauveau 

30. The Hoof Matrix. Chauveau . 

31. Badly Treated Wire Wound. R.eynolds 

32. General Groups of Bacteria. Reynolds 



Partly 



er Overton 



Chauveau 



PAGE 

1 

2 
3 
3 

4 
4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

11 

14 

21 

22 

25 

27 

29 

30 
34 
36 
39 
44 
46 
53 
55 
56 
57 
59 
61 
63 
78 
83 



XVlll 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. 

33. Ventilation. Paige . 

34. Ventilation. Paige 

35. Cupola Ventilation. Wing 

36. Ventilation. Paige 

37. Ventilation. Paige 

38. Mange Mite. Neuman 

39. Cattle Louse. Female. Neuman . 

40. Plain Case of Sheep Scab 

41. Sheep Scab Mites. Curtice, Lugger, Petit 

42. Sheep Scab and Enlarged Proboscis. Neuman 

43. Horse Botfly and Larva. Neuman . 

44. Horse Bots and Botfly. B.A.L 

45. Common Tapeworm of Sheep. Curtice 

46. Nodule Disease. Reynolds 

47. Stomach Worm on Tip of Grass Blade. Ransom 

48. Sheep Gadfly. Brauer .... 

49. Actinomycosis — Lumpy Jaw. Reynolds 

50. Actinomycosis — Lumpy Jaw. Reynolds 

51. Actinomycosis — Lumpy Jaw. Reynolds 

52. Bacterium Anthracis. Reynolds 

53. Foot Rot. Sheep. Williams . 

54. Glanders — Farcy. Reynolds . 

55. Glanders — Farcy. Reynolds . 

56. Glanders — Farcy. Reynolds . 

57. Hemorrhagic Septicaemia. Reynolds 

58. Hemorrhagic Septicaemia. Reynolds 

59. Hemorrhagic Septicaemia. Reynolds 

60. Hemorrhagic Septicaemia. Reynolds 

61. Hog Cholera. Reynolds . 

62. Hog Cholera. Reynolds . 

63. Hog Cholera. Reynolds . 

64. Hog Cholera. Reynolds . 

65. Texas Fever Tick. Pettit 

66. Bovine Tuberculosis. Reynolds 

67. Bovine Tuberculosis. Reynolds 

68. Bovine Tuberculosis. Reynolds 

69. Bovine Tuberculosis. Reynolds 

70. Trocar and Cannula 

71. Showing where to tap for Bloat. Reynolds 

72. Wire for relieving Choke. Reynolds 

73. A Foundered Hoof. B.A.L . 



PAGE 

96 
97 



101 
102 
110 
110 
115 
116 
125 
127 
128 
129 
132 
136 
142 
147 
148 
149 
153 
160 
167 
168 
169 
172 
173 
174 
175 
179 
180 
181 
185 
189 
196 
197 
198 
199 
213 
214 
217 
226 



ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

riG. PAGE 

74. Parturient Paralysis. Reynolds 232 

75. Parturient Paralysis. Reynolds ....... 233 

76. Parturient Paralysis. Reynolds 234 

77. Ringbones. Reynolds . . . . . . . . . 238 

78. Sidebones. Reynolds 241 

79. Spavins. Two Types. Reynolds 244 

80. Navicular Disease. Reynolds 247 

81. Generative Organs of the Mare. Fleming 254 

82. Fetus and Fetal Membranes of the Cow at Mid-pregnancy. Fleming 256 

83. Bovine Cotyledons. Fleming 265 

84. Presentations. B.A.I 275 

85. Holding Horse's Head for Drenching. Reynolds .... 279 

86. Throwing Cattle. Reynolds 283 



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VETERINARY STUDIES 

LECTURE I 
ANATOMY 

Definition. — Anatomy is the science which treats of forms, 
structures, and relations of body organs. These organs are 
divided for study into groups as follows: bones, muscles, 
joints, nervous system, circulatory apparatus, respiratory 
apparatus, urinary apparatus, and digestive apparatus. 

OSTEOLOGY, BONES 

Kinds. — Bones are classified as long, short, flat, and 
irregular. 

Long bones, more or less elongated in form, medullary 
canal in shaft, found in limbs; example — humerus, femur, 
radius, and tibia. 

The short bones are usually short in form, as the name 
implies. They have no medullary canal; example — carpals 
and tarsals. 

Flat bones are those like the bones of the skull and the 
ribs, which consist of two plates of hard bony tissue 
connected by spongy bone. 

Irregular bones are usually found in the median line of 
the body; example — vertebrae. 

Peculiarities. — Those used in describing and recognizing 
bones are : elevations, depressions, borders, surfaces, angles, 
and extremities. 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



Development. — Bones develop either in cartilage or 
membrane. The long leg bones develop from cartilage; 
the flat skull bones develop from membrane. 




Fig. 2. — Horse's Skull. 

1, Premaxillary bone; 2, upper incisors; 3, upper canine teeth; 4, superior 
maxillary bone; 7, nasal bones; 8, lachrymal bone; 11, malar bone; 12, upper 
molar teeth ; 13, frontal bone ; 15, temporal bone ; 16, parietal bone ; 17, occipital ; 
20, styloid processes ; 24, parietal crest ; 25, inferior maxilla ; 26, inferior ^molars ; 
28, inferior canine teeth ; 29, inferior incisor teeth. 



Composition. — Normal bone of mature animals contains 
about one third animal matter and two thirds mineral 
matter. Animal matter gives elasticity ; the mineral matter 
gives firmness and strength. 

Groups. — Bones are divided into the following groups 
for study: Head, spinal column, sternum, ribs, front limb, 
hind limb. 

Head consists of 26 bones, as follows: cranium 9, hyoid 1, 
face 16. 

Cranium 9 : occipital 1, frontal 2, parietal 2, temporal 2, 
ethmoid 1, sphenoid 1. 

Hyoid 1. 

Face 16: superior maxillary 2, inferior maxillary 1, pre- 
maxillary 2, palate 2, malar 2, lachrymal 2, nasal 2, 
vomer 1, inferior turbinated 2. 



ANATOMY 



Teeth. — Mares have on each jaw : 6 incisors and 12 molars, 
or in all 18. Geldings and stallions have, in addition, 2 




Fig. 3. — Six Years, Lower Jaw. 




Fig. 4. — Eight Years, Upper Jaw. 
Note. — Figures 4 and 5 are drawn on different scales. 

canines or tushes, making 20 teeth on each jaw. All the 
incisors and the first three molars are temporary and are 
replaced. The last three come in as permanent teeth, 
according to the following table. ^ 

Cattle have 8 incisors on the lower jaw and none on the 
upper. Their molars are like those of horses in number, and 
the first three are also temporary. 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



Dentition of Horses (Chauveau) 



Kind 


Number 


When Appear 


When Replaced 


( 


Center . . 


Birth .... 


23^ years. 


Incisors .... 


Middle 




4 to 6 weeks . . 


S}/2 years. 


Corner 




6 to 9 months . 


43^ years. 


Canines 


. 




4 to 5 years . . 






1st. 






Birth .... 


23^ years. 




2d . 






Birth .... 


23^ years. 


Molars .... 


3d . 






Birth .... 


S}/2 years. 


4th. 






10 to 12 months 






5th. 






2 years . . . 






6th. 






4 to 5 years . . 





Age of horses by the teeth. — Tell by shedding and appearance of the 
teeth up to 4 years, according to table. Cups wear out of center pair of 
incisors of lower jaw at about 6 years ; cups wear out of middle pair of 
incisors at about 7 years ; and cups wear out of corner incisors at about 8 ; 




Fig. 5. — Twenty Years, Lower Jaw. 




B 




Horse six to seven years old 
inferior molars. 



Grinding Surfaces of Molars. 

A, right-hand superior molars ; B, left-hand 



ANATOMY 5 

cups wear out of center incisors of wpyer jaw at 9, middle pair at 11, and 
corner incisors at about 12. Quality of the teeth, kind of food, and the 
way the teeth fit together to be considered. They may wear very un- 
evenly and be very deceptive. The upper incisors are much less reliable 
as to disappearance of cups than are the lower. 

Original application. — The student should^ now make 
original observations, recording freely by notes and draw- 
ings. He should study the part played by individual bones 
or groups of bones in determining the size and shape of the 
head. 

Study, e.g., the nasal, frontal, superior maxillary, and 
inferior maxillary bones. Note what relation they bear to 
shape of nose, width between the eyes, ^^ coarseness " of 
the head, and width between bones of the lower jaw. 

Spend as much time as possible in practice at estimating 
horses' ages by their teeth. Note especially temporary and 
permanent teeth present, ^^cups,'' shape of wearing surface, 
etc. 



LECTURE II 



OSTEOLOGY 




Fig. 7. 



- Typical Cervical 
Vertebra. 



A, Head of the body ; 
B, transverse process ; C, ar- 
ticular process ; D, superior 
spinous process. 



Spinal column. — This consists of about 52 pieces^ called 

vertebrae. There are 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, 6 lumbar, 5 sacral, 

15 to 18 coccygeal. 

There are certain general charac- 
teristics possessed by all vertebrae, 
regardless of location in the spinal 
column; for instance, each vertebra 
has a body, arch, and spinal canal. 
The body, convex in front and con- 
cave behind, is below the spinal 
canal. The head of the body of each 
vertebra is rounded and fits perfectly 
into the cavity of the rear end of 

the preceding vertebra. Between each pair is considerable 

cartilage, which serves the purpose 

of an elastic pad. 

The arch incloses the sides and top 

of the spinal canal. (1) The trans- 
verse ^processes are the portions which 

project horizontally on each side 

from the arch. (2) The superior 

process projects upward from the top 

of the arch. (3) The articular pro- 
cesses are four in number: two in 

front, and two behind. The former 

articulate with the rear articular 

processes of the preceding vertebra, 

and the latter with the front processes of the succeeding. 

These make up the bony framework of the neck. 




Fig. 8. — Typical Dorsal 
Vertebra, Front View. 

1, Head of the body; 

2, superior spinous process ; 

3, transverse process. 



OSTEOLOGY 7 

Cervical vertebrae. — • There are 7 cervical vertebrae, all 
agreeing in certain general characters. The body is long, 
thick, and has an inferior spine projecting downward from 
its under surface. The superior processes are long from 
before to behind, and together form a long rough line. The 
transverse processes are also long from before to behind. 
In these characteristics the cervical vertebrae differ radically 
from the others. 

Special cervical vertebrce. — There are certain cervical ver- 
tebrae which have marked individual peculiarities. The 
atlas, immediately supporting the head, has a small thin 
body with no head, but instead, two surfaces for articulat- 
ing with the occipital bone. The axis is long, and has, in 
place of the head, a peculiar projection known as ^^odon- 
toid process.'^ This process is shaped somewhat like a 
tooth, flence the name. The superior process is long from 
front to rear. The seventh cervical vertebra has a long 
superior process, somewhat resembling those of dorsal verte- 
brae. It also presents a small articular surface for articula- 
tion with the head of the first rib. 

Dorsal vertebrae. — These are located in the back, and 
are 18 in number. They also have certain general char- 
acteristics. The body is short. There are four articular 
cavities, two in front and two behind for tlie heads of the 
ribs. Superior processes are long and flat from side to side, 
transverse processes short and small. None of the dorsal 
vertebrae differ very markedly from this general type. 

Lumbar vertebrae. — These make 
up the framework of the loin. In 
general the body is longer and wider 
than the dorsal. The superior pro- 
cesses are also shorter. The trans- Fig. 9. — Typical Lumbar 

, , n , Vertebra, Front View. 

verse processes are also long, flat, ^ j^^^^. ^^ ^^^, ^ ^_ 

and thin. perior spinous process ; 4, 

Sacrum. — This constitutes the transverse process. 

croup. It consists of five pieces, united in the adult. It 
articulates with the last lumbar vertebra in front, with 





8 VETERINARY STUDIES 

the first coccygeal vertebra behind, and with the pelvis on 
each side. This portion of the spinal column is triangu- 
lar, with the base forward. 

Coccygeal vertebrae. — These are 
15 to 18 in number, and located in 
the tail. The spinal canal is de- 
FiG. 10. -Lateral View OF ygioped in the first three or four. 

THE Sacrum. ktm n • • n • i 

1, Spinal canal, anterior The first one IS occasioually united 

portion; 3, superior spinous to the Sacrum. 

processes. ^^^^ stemum. — This is located 

in the front and lower portion of the chest, and extends 
from before to behind. It consists of six or seven pieces 
of cartilaginous bone and has distinct prolongations of 
cartilage from both the front and rear ends. On each 
side are articular surfaces for the first eight ribs. The 
sternum is commonly called the breast bone. 

Ribs. — These usually number 18 pairs, and are described 
as the first, Second, third, etc., beginning with the front 
pair. They all articulate above with the dorsal vertebrae ; 
the lower ends of the first eight articulate with the sternum 
by means of cartilages. The remaining ten connect with 
the sternum by means of long cartilages, each of which rests 
against the preceding one. The ninth, or first asternal, rib 
is united rather closely to the eighth, which articulates with 
the sternum. 

The shaft shows external convex and internal concave 
surfaces and two borders: anterior or front, and posterior 
or rear. The superior or upper extremity shows a head and 
a small projection, the tuberosity. These articulate with 
the dorsal vertebrae as already explained. Function of the 
ribs is to form a supporting and movable wall for the chest, 
protecting the soft organs and performing a very important 
function in opening the chest for respiration. 

Practical application. — The student should now study, 
for himself, the part played by each group of vertebrae in 
determining the conformation of its region. Take, e.g. the 
cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral groups and note what 



OSTEOLOGY 9 

relation they bear to length of neck^ height and shape of 
withers and length of back, width and length of loin, 
length and slope of the croup. The student should also 
study the influence of shape of rib upon width of back and 
shape of sides. Record fully by notes and drawings. 



LECTURE III 
FRONT LIMB 

This limb is composed of 20 bones, and includes the 
shoulder, arm, forearm, and foot. 

The shoulder contains but one bone, the scapula, or shoulder 
blade. It is triangular and situated at the front and lower 
portion of the chest wall. Its direction is downward and 
forward, and it articulates below with the head of the hu- 
merus, or arm bone. The inner surface is somewhat con- 
cave. The external surface is divided into two portions by 
a long ridge which extends lengthwise of the bone. The 
upper portion is flat and thin. 

The arm contains a single bone, the humerus. The hu- 
merus is a long bone. Its upper end articulates with the 
scapula, and the lower end with the ulna and radius. It 
offers for description a shaft, and upper and lower extremi- 
ties. A peculiar feature of the shaft is a sort of furrow, 
which twists around the bone and is known in anatomy as 
the furrow of torsion. The superior extremity shows a 
rounded head which is fitted for articulation with a cor- 
responding cavity of the scapula. 

The forearm contains the radius and ulnaj which in the 
horse and cow are firmly united. The radius belongs to the 
group classified as long bones, and articulates with the hu- 
merus above and the carpal bones below. The anterior 
surface of this bone is convex and smooth; the posterior 
surface, concave. The ulna is also a long bone, located just 
back of the radius. The shaft is triangular. The upper 
extremity shows a marked enlargement which is useful for 
attachment of muscles and gives leverage. It also contains 

10 



FRONT LIMB 



11 



a deep notch for articulation with the humerus. The in- 
ferior portion of this bone is slender and more or less pointed, 
containing at its extremity a small 
knob. 

The foot includes 7 carpals, 3 
metacarpals, 2 sesamoids, 3 pha- 
langes, and 1 navicular. 

The carpals consist of seven small, 
short bones, and with the articula- 
tion of the carpals to the radius 
above, and the metacarpals below, 
make up what is commonly known 
as the knee joint. 

The metacarpals are located in 
what is known as the region of the 
cannon. They are three in num- 
ber: a large one in the middle, 
which is long and more or less cylinr 
drical; and one rudimentary meta- 
carpal on each side. These together 
articulate above with the carpals, 
and the large one below with the 
first phalanx and the sesamoids. 
The small metacarpals are com- 
monly known as splint bones. 

The fii'st phalanx is commonly 
known as the pastern. It is the 
shortest bone in the body that is 
classified as a long bone. The shaft 
shows an anterior convex surface 

and a posterior surface which is Fig. IL — Anterior Limb of 

flattened and rough. The upper ^^ Horse. 

extremity is marked by two shallow , ^' Scapula ; h, humerus ; 

. , *^ ^ A, radius ; U, ulna ; C, carpals ; 

cavities, separated by a median M, metacarpals ; S, sesamoids ; 

groove and fitted for articulation P' P^^^^^g^^- 

with the two convex surfaces and the median ridge which 

mark the inferior extremity of the large metacarpal. The 




12 VETERINARY STUDIES 

lower extremity has two articular surfaces separated by a 
median groove like that of the large metacarpal. 

The sesamoids are two small^ somewhat triangular, and 
irregular bones, placed side by side just back of the upper 
part of the pastern bone. These articulate with both the 
large metacarpal and first phalanx or pastern. They are 
side by side and together form a groove for the flexor 
tendons. 

The second phalanx, or coronet bone, is short and some- 
what square in form. It articulates with the first phalanx 
above, and the third phalanx and navicular below. The 
upper and lower extremities of this bone resemble the upper 
and lower extremities of the first phalanx. 

The third phalanx, or pedal bone, is pyramidal in shape 
and irregular. Its superior face shows two shallow cavities 
separated by a median ridge fitted for articulation with the 
second phalanx. The anterior face is convex and quite 
rough. The inferior surface is the one on which the foot 
rests. It is called the sole. The superior border of the 
anterior face has quite a projection which is especially fitted 
for the insertion of a tendon. This is technically known as 
the pyramidal process. The lower portion of this bone is 
continued outward and backward on each side into what is 
known as the wing. 

The navicular hone is located just back of the upper part 
of the third phalanx and is articulated to that bone. It is 
long and narrow, and placed transversely. Its anterior sur- 
face articulates with the third phalanx. Its posterior sur- 
face is covered with cartilage and forms a gliding surface 
for the tendon of the deep flexor muscle which passes over 
this bone to its attachment on the sole or inferior surface of 
the third phalanx. 



LECTURE IV 
POSTERIOR LIMB 

This limb also contains 20 bones^ and is divided for study 
into pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot. 

The pelvis is divided into two halves, each half being com- 
posed of three bones closely united. These bones are distinct 
in early life, but become united as the animal grows older. 
The two halves of the pelvis bound the pelvic cavity, which 
contains the rectum, bladder, and sexual organs. Each 
half of the pelvis articulates with the sacrum. 

The thigh contains one bone, the femur, which articulates 
above with the pelvis and below with the larger of the two 
leg bones. The femur belongs to the group which we have 
classified as long bones, and is the heaviest and strongest bone 
in the body. This bone offers for study a shaft, upper and 
lower extremities. The shaft shows three faces, — external, 
internal, and anterior, which are smooth and convex, and 
a posterior face which is rough and irregular on the sur- 
face. There is a large projection on the upper portion of 
the posterior face called the internal trochanter. On the 
upper extremity we find a smooth rounded head which ar- 
ticulates with a deep cavity in the pelvic bone above. On 
the external surface and projecting above the head is the 
external or great trochanter. The inferior extremity is 
somewhat flat from side to side and shows two rounded 
surfaces which we will call condyles. These are separated 
by a deep groove known as the trochlea. 

The leg contains three bones, — tibia, fibula, and patella. 

The tibia is a long bone with a somewhat triangular shaft, 
larger at the upper than at the lower end. It articulates 

13 



14 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



above with the femur, patella, and fibula, and below with 
the bones of the hock, i.e. the tarsal bones. This bone, 

like the femur, offers for study a 
distinct shaft, upper and lower 
extremities. 

The shaft of the tibia presents 
three surfaces, — the external, in- 
ternal, ^nd posterior; and three 
borders, — the anterior, external, 
and internal. The superior ex- 
tremity shows in front a depres- 
sion for one of the ligaments 
which attaches the patella to the 
tibia, a small articular surface 
for the fibula on the outer side, 
two oval depressions with a 
marked projection between them 
for articulating with the condyles 
of the femur. These are smooth 
and covered with articular carti- 
lage. The inferior extremity pre- 
sents an external and an internal 
tuberosity. Its articular surface 
consists of two shallow cavities 
and a median ridge, all three of 
which extend diagonally forward 
and backward. 

This bone articulates with four 
others; viz. femur, patella, fibula, 
and one of the tarsal bones. 

The fibula is a small rudimen- 
tary bone which articulates with 
c, Pelvic bone ; F, femur ; v, pa- -^^e external Dortiou of the head 

tella ; J, tibia ; X, fibula ; T, tar- . . 

sals ; M, metatarsals ; S, sesamoids ; of the tibia, and is situated OU 

P. phalanges. ^^^ external side of that bone. 

The patella is small, short, and located in front of the 
lower extremity of the femur, and attached to the tibia 




Fig. 12. — Posterior Limb of 
THE Horse. 



POSTERIOR LIMB 15 

below by three strong ligaments. It is displaced outward 
when the limb is in the condition popularly known as 
^^stifled/' This bone offers for study three faces: superior, 
to which muscles are attached; the anterior, which is con- 
vex and somewhat irregular; and the posterior, which is 
so shaped as to fit nicely into the femoral groove already 
mentioned. 

The foot bears a very close resemblance in its anatomy 
to the corresponding portion of the anterior limb, and is 
divided for study into the tarsus, metatarsus, and digit. 

The tarsus is composed of six or seven small bones, ar- 
ranged in two rows, the upper row containing the astragalus 
and OS calcis. The lower row usually consists of four small 
bones. Two of these are especially interesting because they 
are the common seat of bone spavin. 

The astragalus is interesting because it furnishes the ar- 
ticular surfaces for the lower end of the tibia. 

The OS calcis is somewhat elongated and lies behind the 
astragalus. It corresponds to the prominent portion of the 
human heel. The bones of this region correspond to the 
human tarsal bones making up the ankle. 

The metatarsus consists of three bones, a large one in the 
center and one small rudimentary bone on each side, i.e. on 
the inside and outside of the middle bone. The large meta- 
carpal furnishes the supporting axis for this region as in the 
anterior limb. The shaft is fairly smooth and has a small 
articular surface on each side for the rudimentary meta- 
tarsal. It is supposed that the small metacarpal and meta- 
tarsal bones are merely survivals in the process of evolution, 
and that in the earlier history of the various animals from 
which the modern horse is descended these bones were 
larger than they are now, having the same length and the 
same functional importance as the principal metacarpal 
and metatarsal bones. The original ancestor of the horse 
is supposed to have had five metacarpals and five meta- 
tarsals with corresponding digits or toes. 

Each digit contains three bones known as the phalanges, 



16 VETERINARY STUDIES 

the horse having three phalanges and the' cow six. These 
are commonly known as the first, second, and third phalanges, 
or OS suffraginis, os corona, and os pedis. The anatomy of 
this region is discussed more fully in the special chapter on 
the foot. 

The phalanges, sesamoids, and navicular bones are very 
similar to the corresponding bones of the front limb, al- 
ready described. 

Original observations. — The student should now make 
careful observations for himself and record freely by notes 
and drawings. He should study as before the part played 
by each bone or closely associated groups of bones in deter- 
mining the size and shape of the part wherein it is placed. 
For the front limb study in this relation the scapula, ulna, 
and radius combined, metacarpals, and first and second 
phalanges. In the hind limb study in this way the pelvis, 
femur, tibia, os calcis, and metatarsals. 

Animal husbandry students should find this application 
of the preceding lessons helpful by giving a clear view of the 
anatomical basis of conformation and type. 



LECTURE V 

ARTICULATIONS OR JOINTS 

Articulations are divided into several groups for the 
purpose of study. These groups are: immovable, slightly 
movable, and freely movable. 

Examples: Immovable, between the skull bones; slightly 
movable, between vertebrae ; freely movable, between scapula 
and humerus. 

Freely movable. — The freely movable articulations are 
subdivided according to shapes of the articular surfaces and 
varieties of movement that can be produced. These sub- 
divisions are: ball-and-socket, hinge, pivot, imperfect hinge, 
and gliding. 

The ball-and-socket articulation, of which we find examples 
at the shoulder and hip, is made by a rounded head of one 
bone fitted into a rounded cavity of some other bone; for 
instance, at the shoulder we have a rounded head of the 
humerus fitted into a glenoid cavity of the scapula. At 
the hip a rounded head on the superior extremity of the 
femur fits perfectly into the cotyloid cavity of the pelvic 
bone. It will be readily seen that the ball-and-socket joint 
permits the greatest variety of movements. 

The hinge joint is made by two articular surfaces of such 
shape and so fitted together that no lateral or rotary motion 
is possible. Only two movements are allowed at joints of 
this kind: flexion and extension. The articulation between 
the humerus above and the ulna and radius below offers a 
good example of this kind. 

Pivot joint is one where portions of two bones are in con- 
tact in such a way as to permit of rotary motion ; for ex- 
ample, between the atlas and axis, the rotation being 
c 17 



18 VETERINARY STUDIES 

around the odontoid or toothlike processes of the axis. 
Articulations of this kind permit of rotation only. 

The imperfect hinge joint is one which permits of two 
principal motions — flexion and extension, and to a limited 
extent some other motion, as for instance rotary or lateral 
movement. We may find a type of this articulation be- 
tween the temporal and inferior maxillary bones, or between 
the femur and tibia. Articulations of this kind are formed 
by oval heads fitting in oval sockets. 

Gliding joints permit only simple gliding movement be- 
tween the articular surfaces. The articular surfaces in joints 
of this kind are more or less nearly flat. 

Immovable. — At immovable articulations the bones are 
firmly united by cartilage and practically continuous with 
each other. 

Slightly movable. — At slightly movable articulations, bones 
are united by a cartilage which is elastic enough to permit 
of slight movement, e.g. the common intervertebral articu- 
lations. 

At freely movable articulations the articulating bony sur- 
faces are each covered by a thin layer of smooth, glistening, 
and elastic articular cartilage. This cartilage gives a smooth 
gliding surface. It also lessens jar by its elasticity and 
protects the bony surface beneath. 

Structures at joints are bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles, 
synovial membrane, and synovial fluid. 

Ligaments are either bands or sheets of white or yellow 
connective tissue. The white ligaments are very strong and 
inelastic. Their sole function is to hold bones together at 
articulations. The yellow ligaments are composed of yellow 
elastic connective tissue, and are especially useful as assist- 
ants to muscles, particularly in supporting parts of the 
body, like the head of the horse, which constantly tend to 
fall. 

Synovial membranes are sometimes called capsules. These 
are serous membranes, quite thin, but composed of two 
layers, deep and superficial. This membrane affords at 



ARTICULATIONS OR JOINTS 19 

each joint a closed sack and is for the purpose of secreting 
synovia. Synovial membranes do not cover the surface of 
the articular cartilage, as is frequently supposed, but usually 
inclose the articulations like sacks, being attached at one 
side near the edge of the articular surface of one bone, and 
at the other side near the articular edge of the other bone. 
The membranes are usually also attached to the inner 
surface of the capsular or other ligaments of the joint. 

Synovia is a viscid fluid, shghtly yellow or nearly color- 
less. It has an oily feeling, but is not an oil chemically. 
This fluid is quite rich in albumen, which gives it the viscid 
property, and adapts it so well for lubricating articular sur- 
faces. Muscles and tendons are discussed in Lecture VI. 

Kinds of motion are : flexion, or bending, in which the two 
articulating bones are brought nearer each other; exten- 
sion, the reverse of flexion, by which bones are straightened 
on each other; adduction, bringing the lower extremity of 
the moving bone toward the median line; abduction, in 
which the lower end of the moving bone is carried from the 
median line; circumduction, in which the articulation forms 
the apex of a cone circumscribed by the moving bone ; rota- 
tion, in which one bone rotates as a pivot on another. 

Joints are named according to the bones involved. In 
the limbs the upper bone is named first. In the vertebrae, 
the anterior bone is named first. 

DESCRIBING ARTICULATIONS 

Scapulo-humeral. — This is a ball-and-socket joint, the 
rounded head of the humerus fitting the glenoid cavity of 
the scapula. 

Ligaments at this joint are: (a) glenoid, a cartilaginous 
rim around the cavity which deepens the cavity; (h) cap- 
sular, a sort of capsule fitting around the joint like a bag; 
(c) two bundles of ligament fibers in front of the joint con- 
necting the extremities of the scapula and humerus. 

Movements. — All the motions, except true gliding, are 



20 VETERINARY STUDIES 

possible at this articulation. The synovial membrane is 
quite loose and affords a lining for the capsular ligament. 

First interphalangeal articulation. — This is an imperfect 
hinge joint. The articular surface of the inferior extremity 
of the first phalanx is characterized by two condyles and a 
median groove which fit with two shallow cavities and a 
median ridge on the superior extremity of the second 
phalanx. 

Ligaments. — The articular extremities which make up 
this articulation are supported by the following ligaments 
and tendons : in front by the tendon of the anterior extensor 
muscle; on the sides by two lateral ligaments, one on each 
side; behind by the posterior ligament and the tendons of 
the shallow and deep flexor muscles which pass over the 
posterior of the joint. The posterior ligament is really a 
thick strong pad of fibrocartilage. 

Movements. — Flexion and extension, together with a 
limited lateral movement. 



LECTURE VI 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM 

The peculiar property of muscle tissue is the power of self- 
contraction and self-movement. The muscles of the animal 
body are divided into voluntary and involuntary. 

Voluntary muscles are under the control of the will 
through the cerebrospinal system. 




Fig. 13. — Voluntary Muscle. {M.H.R.) 

1. Action of Muscle in Producing Motion. Muscle does its work by shortening 
its belly. A, A, Bones ; B, B, tendons ; C, belly of muscle ; E, articulation (joint). 

2. Muscle in Cross Section. Showing " bundle of bundles " arrangement of the 
fibers. Dots represent single fibers. 

3. Diagram of Simple Muscle. B, B, Tendons ; C, belly (lean meat). 

Involuntary muscles act independently of the will, and are 
under the control of the sympathetic nervous system. 

Voluntary muscles. — What is popularly termed ^^ lean 
meat " is composed of voluntary muscles. These are classi- 
fied into simple, digastric, biceps, triceps, penniform, bi- 
penniform. 

A simple muscle is characterized by a single belly with not 
more than one tendon at either end ; a digastric muscle has 

21 , 



22 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



two bellies connected by a tendon; a biceps muscle has two 
tendons at one end; a triceps muscle has three tendons at 
one end ; penniform, when the fibers attach to one side of a 
tendon; hipenniform, or featherform, is characterized by 
fibers attaching to two sides of a continuous tendon. 

They are also classified 
according to function into 
flexorS; extensors, abduc- 
tors, adductors, and ro- 
tators. 

The belly is the active 
working part (lean meat). 
The tendon merely serves to 
give connection with a dis- 
tant object, usually a bone. 
Tendons are strong, but 
have no power of contrac- 
tion. The strength of a 
muscle depends upon the 
thickness of the belly. The 
extent of its movement de- 
pends upon the length of 
the belly. 

The two ends of a muscle 
are defined as origin and insertion. The origin is the less 
movable end; insertion the more movable end. It may 
happen at one time that one end is the insertion, at 
another time the origin. 

A muscle produces motion by. pulling upon some bone 
which acts as a lever with the fulcrum at a joint. 

The muscle fibers may attach directly to the bone, or in- 
directly through tendon fibers. The connection between the 
muscle fiber and the tendon fiber is by insertion of the coni- 
cal point of the muscle fiber into a conical cavity at the end 
of the tendon fiber. 

Structure. — The voluntary muscle consists of bundles of 
bundled fibers; each individual fiber has its own delicate 




Muscle Fibers. 



A, Bundle of voluntary fibers, side view, 
B, C, D, Three involuntary fibers, spindle- 
shaped cells with nuclei. 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 23 

sheath. A number of fibers are inclosed within a common 
connective tissue sheath and constitute a minute bundle. 
A number of these bundles are in turn wrapped within a 
connective tissue sheath, forming a larger bundle. These 
larger bundles may in turn be wrapped by means of an- 
other connective tissue sheath into a still larger bundle. 

The voluntary muscle fiber is long, threadlike, marked by 
cross stripes which are very close together, and may end in 
tendon fiber. These muscle fibers are about xsVo ^^ ^^ 
inch wide, but may be very long. 

Involuntary muscles. — Involuntary muscle fibers are 
merely long, spindle-shaped cells, which do not end in ten- 
don fibers. They may be arranged in the form of small 
bundles, and are usually in the form of thin sheets. Invol- 
untary muscle tissue is lighter in color than voluntary, and 
usually incloses hollow organs forming one of the coats or 
layers. The middle coat of the stomach and intestines is 
composed of involuntary muscle fibers. 

Function. — It is their function to carry on work which 
could not be intrusted to conscious control and with which 
the brain could not wxll be burdened. 

Peristaltic action of the stomach and intestines is pro- 
duced by the rhythmic action of these muscle fibers. The 
heart muscle fibers differ from both the typical voluntary 
and the typical involuntary fibers. They are striped, but 
operate independently of the will. 

Source of heat and power. — Muscular power comes from 
oxidation of food material in the various tissues of the body, 
particularly in the muscles and larger glands. During the 
process of oxidation, carbonic gas and other materials are 
developed. Power is increased by proper nourishment, and 
is decreased by lack of nourishment. Muscles lose in 
strength by overwork because they are consumed more 
rapidly than rebuilt. Muscles are paired in a double sense. 
The rule is that for any given muscle there is a correspond- 
ing muscle on the other side of the body, and also one or 
more opposing muscles on its own side. 



24 VETERINARY STUDIES 

The belly of a muscle has a rich blood supply; the ten- 
don has very little. 

Description of voluntary muscle. — The masseter muscle 
is located on the outer part of the cheek. Form, flat/ broad^ 
thick, four-sided. Origin, on the temporal and superior 
maxillary bones. Insertion, on the outer surface of the in- 
ferior maxillary. Action, elevates the lower jaw. Nerve 
supply, from a branch of the fifth cranial nerve (trifacial). 

Application. — The student should now make practical 
observations for himself, recording as in previous lectures. 
He may select at the teacher's discretion several short thick 
muscles and several long slender ones, and should note 
locations, attachments, and probable functions, and should 
make a statement concerning the probable working effi- 
ciency of muscles of these different types. This refers to 
the amount of load to be moved and long or short distance 
of movement. This work may be done from charts, papier- 
mache models, or better, from actual dissection. 

Study a skeleton, and also a horse in motion, and note 
how the horse pulls, or lifts a load. What occurs at the 
articulations and how is this brought about? 

Study the location and size of muscles and the relations 
of these considerations to body conformation. 



LECTUKE VII 
NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Function. — The peculiar function of the nervous system 
is to control the various organs and systems of the body, 
and compel them to work in harmony. The peculiar prop- 
erty of nerve tissue is irritability. The nervous system is 
composed of nerve centers, nerve trunks, nerve fibers, and 
nerve cells. 

A nerve center is composed of ganglion cells, nerve fibers, 
connective tissue, and blood vessels. The function of a 





Fig. 15. — Nerve Cell and Nerve Fiber. 
A, Nerve Cell with Several Poles. One pole continues as a meduUated nerve 



fiber. A, Primitive sheath ; B, medullary sheath ; C, axis cylinder. 

2. MeduUated Nerve Fiber. A, Primitive sheath ; B, medullary sheath 
cylinder ; D, node ; E, nerve corpuscle. 



C, axis 



nerve center is to receive and dispose of impressions which 
may be brought to it, to connect nerve fibers, and in the 
case of the forebrain to originate conscious impulses. 
A nerve fiber is composed in some cases of a central fiber 

25 



26 VETERINARY STUDIES 

surrounded by one or two protecting sheaths; in other 
cases, of the central fiber only. Nerve fibers conduct im- 
pulses between the various tissues and organs and the nerve 
centers. 

A nerve trunk is composed of an indefinite number of 
nerve fibers supported within a common sheath. 

A nerve cell is an irregularly shaped microscopic cell, hav- 
ing a varying number of branches, one of which, in case of 
the motor cells, may continue to indefinite length as the 
axis cylinder or central fiber previously mentioned. 

Nerve fibers are classified according to function into: 
motor, sensory, and special sense. 

Motor fibers are those which convey impulses to the 
muscles and control muscular action. 

Sensory fibers are those which convey impulses toward 
brain centers and supply only sensation to the structures to 
which they are distributed. 

Fibers of special sense, as in olfactory, optic, and auditory 
nerves, transmit only sensations that pertain to the functions 
of the special senses, like hearing and sight. 

Many of the cranial and facial nerves contain both motor 
and sensory fibers and are therefore mixed. 

Nerve trunks are therefore classified as motor, sensory, 
mixed, and nerves of special sense, according to the kind or 
kinds of fibers composing them. 

The nervous system is subdivided for study into the cere- 
brospinal and sympathetic nervous systems. 

CEREBROSPINAL SYSTEM 

The cerebrospinal nervous system consists of the brain 
and spinal cord together, with their nerves and ganglia. 
The brain and spinal cord should be considered as one com- 
plex organ located within a continuous canal, the brain to 
be considered as merely an enlargement at the anterior 
extremity. The cranial cavity should be considered as an 
enlargement at the anterior extremity of the spinal canal. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



27 



The cranial bones may be considered as peculiarly developed 
vertebrae. 

The brain is located in an ovoid cavity, the walls of which 
are formed by the cranial bones. It is covered by three 
membranes: (1) The dura mater is tough, thick, and strong, 
and exactly fitted to the inner surface of the cranial bones. 




Fig. 16. — Cerebro-Spinal Nervous System. 

1, Brain ; 2, optic nerve ; 3, superior maxillary nerve ; 4, inferior maxillary- 
nerve ; 5, pneumogastric nei-ve ; 6, spinal cord; 10, radial nerve; 11, median 
nerve ; 12, pneumogastric nerve ; 13, portion of solar plexus ; 14, solar plexus ; 
17, sciatic trunk ; 19, great sciatic nerve ; 20, posterior tibial nerve ; 21, posterior 
plantar nerve ; 22, internal radial nerve ; 23, anterior plantar nerve ; 24, digital 
nerves. 

(2) The arachnoid consists of two layers forming a closed 
sack, the outer layer fitted closely to the dura mater, and 
the inner layer fitted closely to the pia mater. (3) The pia 
mater is thin, delicate, and fits closely to the brain sub- 
stance — over the convolutions and into the depressions. 

Gray matter, folded into convolutions, covers the surface. 
The interior is composed of white matter. 

Function. — The physiological function of the brain is to 



28 VETERINARY STUDIES 

receive messages, consider information, and send out ap- 
propriate impulses or orders to the proper organs. 

Divisions. — The brain is divided for study into : (a) cere- 
brum; (b) cerebellum; (c) medulla; (d) isthmus. 

The cerebrum is largest, and located in the anterior part 
of the brain cavity, and is divided into two lobes or hemi- 
spheres by the median fissure. 

The cerebellum, smaller than the cerebrum, is located in 
the posterior and inferior part of the brain cavity, and con- 
sists of three small lobes. Section shows the arbor-vitae 
(tree of life) arrangement of nerve tissue. It is the func- 
tion of the cerebellum to control the voluntary muscles that 
they may work in harmony. 

The medulla is a continuation of the spinal cord and ex- 
tends from the occipital opening in the brain cavity to the 
pons or bridge, and is located posterior and inferior to the 
cerebellum. 

Within the medulla are located a number of important 
centers, among them, the ones controlling respiration; the 
caliber of blood vessels, distribution of the blood according 
to the needs of the body; the center controlling the processes 
of swallowing; the vomiting center; and the center control- 
ling the secretion of saliva. 

The isthmus is that part of the inferior portion of the 
brain which connects the pons with the cerebrum. 

Cranial nerves. — There are twelve pairs, of which the 
1st is olfactory (nerve of smell); 2d, optic (sight); 3d, oc- 
culomotor, to muscles of the eyeball; 5th, trifacial, to eye, 
skin of the face, teeth, etc. ; 7th, facial, to muscles of face ; 
8th, auditory, to internal ear — hearing; 9th., glossopharyn- 
geal to tongue and pharynx, sense of taste and general sen- 
sation; 10th, pneumogastric, sometimes called the wandering 
pair, distributed to heart, lungs, stomach, liver, intestines 
and other abdominal organs. 

Spinal cord is that poijtion of the cerebrospinal system 
which extends within the spinal canal from the occipital 
opening to the sacrum. It weighs about 10.5 ounces and con- 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 



29 



sists of white matter on the outside and gray matter in the 
interior, and is covered by the same three membranes as 
the brain. The spinal cord is marked throughout its entire 
length by two fissures, one extending along the superior 
surface, and another along the inferior surface. 

It is the function of the spinal cord to act as a means of 
communication between the brain and spinal nerves, and 
as a reflex nerve center. 

Spinal nerves. — There are about 42 pairs. Each nerve 
has origin in two roots. One root (superior) comes from the 
upper portion of the cord and is composed of sensory fibers. 
The other root (inferior) comes from the lower portion of the 




Spinal Cord and Brain in Diagram. (M. H. R.) 



1. Cross Section of the Spinal Cord. A, Superior median fissure ; B, inferior 
median fissure ; C, C, superior gray horns ; D, D, inferior gray horns ; E, central 
canal ; F, white substance. 

2. Vertical Mid-Section of Brain. A, Medulla ; B, cerebellum ; C, pons or 
bridge ; D, isthmus ; E, cerebrum. 



cord and is composed of motor fibers. The nerve is there- 
fore mixed. 

These nerves emerge from the spinal canal in pairs, one 
on each side and at each articulation of the vertebrae. They 
are named cervical, dorsal, etc., according to location in the 
spinal column. 

The spinal nerves supply, by their superior branches, the 
skin and muscles of the neck and spinal column. By their 
inferior branches they supply the lower portion of the body 
and limbs and furnish other branches which in part make 
up the two great sympathetic nerve trunks. 



30 VETERINARY STUDIES 

THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM 

This consists of two cords, one on each side of the spinal 
column, and extending from the head to root of tail, together 
with all the nerves which branch from these two trunks. 
These cords are not smooth, but have enlargements called 
ganglia at intervals along their course. Each cord resem- 
bles somewhat a small, rather flat, and knotted rope. 

Composition. — These two trunks are composed of nerves 
from the medulla and from the inferior branches of all the 
spinal nerves except the coccygeal. By this arrangement of 
composition and the frequent connections of sympathetic 
with cerebrospinal nerves, there is constituted a very per- 




FiG. 18. — Relation of the Sympathetic and Cerebrospinal Systems. 
Partly Diagrammatic. 

1, Brain ; 2, spinal cord ; 3, sympathetics. 

feet union of these two systems into one great nervous 
machine. 

Ganglia. — The knots along the two main trunks are 
ganglia of nerve cells and fibers. One of these, the solar 
plexus, is really composed of two large ganglia, united by a 
large cord and many filaments. It supplies the stomach, 
intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys. An injury 
to the solar plexus is always serious. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM 31 

Sympathetic nerves. — These control in part involuntary 
muscle fibers and through these the organs of circulation, 
respiration, and digestion, and in part the work of the 
various glands including the liver, spleen, pancreas, and 
kidneys. Sympathetic nerves are gray; cerebrospinal 
nerves are white. 

Practical application. — The student should now make 
practical observations, recording fully. He may, for ex- 
ample, record past experience or present observations con- 
cerning horses and cattle, taking those of sluggish, 
well-balanced, and highly nervous organizations. Compare 
these different types as to working efficiency, feeding, and 
keeping quality. Note the effect of excitement on high- 
type dairy cows as to production — quantity and quality of 
milk considered. 

In making these studies, he should bear in mind that the 
quantity and quality of digestive fiuids, food absorption, 
distribution and utilization of food material, the amount of 
blood fiowing through a cow's udder, and the degree of 
gland cell activity in the udder are all under the direct in- 
fluence of the nervous system. 



LECTURE VIII 
CIRCULATION 

Blood is a complex fluid consisting of serum, fibrin fac- 
tors^ and two kinds of corpuscles, — the red and the white. 
Its temperature differs in the various domestic animals from 
101° to 104° F., — the horse 100° to 101.5° F. and the 
cow about one degree higher; sheep vary from 100° to 104°. 
Its specific gravity is about 1050, and it constitutes about 
one tenth the body weight. 

Circulatory apparatus — heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, 
lymphatic vessels, and lymph glands. 

The heart is located within the pericardium, which sup- 
ports the heart in place beneath the 3d, 4th, and 5th dorsal 
vertebrae by 'attaching to the large blood vessels at its base; 
to the diaphragm behind, and to the sternum below. It 
measures about 10.5 inches in length by 7.5 wide at the 
base, is cone-shaped, and weighs 6.75 pounds. The heart 
contains four cavities, easily seen by cutting the heart open. 
Two located at the base are called auricles; and two at the 
apex, ventricles. 

The auricles are much alike, as are also the ventricles, 
except that the left ventricle is larger and has a wall which 
is more than twice as thick as the right. The heart is 
covered by the pericardium and lined with the endocardium. 
Its muscle fibers are involuntary so far as control is con- 
cerned, but are striped. 

Course of the blood. — Beginning with the blood entering 
the right auricle through the anterior and posterior venae 
cavae and coronary veins, it then passes through the right 
auricle, thence into the right ventricle, thence to the lungs 

32 



CIRCULATION 33 

through the pulmonary artery, back to the left auricle, 
through four pulmonary veins, past the valves on the left 
side, to the left ventricle, and is then sent by this ventricle 
through the systemic circuit. The systemic blood leaves 
the left ventricle through a large artery called the aorta. 

The opening between the right auricle and the right 
ventricle is guarded by the right auriculo-ventricular valve; 
the opening between the right ventricle and the pulmonary 
artery is guarded by the right semilunar valve. 

The opening between the left ventricle and the left auricle 
is guarded by the left auriculo-ventricular valve, and the 
opening to the aorta from the left ventricle is guarded by 
the left semilunar valve. 

The pulmonary circulation is the flow of blood which 
occurs between the heart and lungs. 

The systemic circulation is that which occurs between the 
heart and all the rest of the body, except the lungs. 

Arteries, veins, and capillaries. — Arteries have thicker and 
more elastic walls ; remain open after death, although empty ; 
the stream flows in jets; the blood is lighter in color than 
that in the veins and flows from the heart. Arteries have 
no valves. In all these points the arteries differ from the 
veins. Both have three coats: outer, fibrous; middle, 
muscular; and inner, serous. 

Capillaries are the small vessels and spaces which connect 
minute arteries with minute veins. 

BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BODY 

Arteries. — The aorta is the trunk artery which receives 
blood from the left ventricle for the systematic circuit. It 
is about two inches long and branches into two large trunks; 
viz. the anterior aorta and the posterior aorta. The an- 
terior supplies the head, neck, and front limbs ; and the pos- 
terior supplies in a general way the rest of the body. 

Anterior aorta is smaller and shorter (one inch long) ; 
course is upward and forward. It divides into the right 



34^ 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



and left axillary arteries. These lie near the trachea, one 
on each side, for a short distance, and then bend around the 
anterior borders of the first ribs and terminate at the inner 
part of each shoulder in the humeral arteries, which are the 
continuing branches of the axillary. Each humeral fur- 
nishes blood for the corresponding front limb. 




Fig. 19. — Circulation. Arteries Gray, Veins White. 

1, Heart, right ventricle ; 2, left ventricle ; 3, left auricle ; 4, pulmonary artery ; 
5, pulmonary veins ; 6, anterior aorta ; 7, carotid artery ; 9, left axUlary artery ; 
13, humeral artery ; 14, radial artery ; 15, metacarpal artery ; 16, digital 
artery; 17, posterior aorta ; 18, coeliac trunk ; 19, mesenteric trunk ; 20, renal 
(kidney) artery ; 22, posterior vena cava (vein) ; 23, portal vein ; 24, external iliac 
artery ; internal iliac artery; 27, femoral artery ; 28, posterior tibial artery; 
29, metatarsal artery; 30, venous supply to the foot; 33, jugular vein. 



The common carotid arteries, right and left, supply various 
structures in the neck and head. These have their origin 
in a single vessel, the cephalic artery, which branches from 
the right axillary near the division of the anterior aorta 
into right and left axillary arteries. 

A corpuscle, on its way from the heart to the brain, would 



CIRCULATION 35 

pass through the aorta, anterior aorta, right axillary, ce- 
phalic, and common carotid, and then through a branch of 
the carotid to the brain. 

Posterior aorta curves upward and backward, through the 
diaphragm, then under the bodies of the dorsal and lumbar 
vertebrae to the lumbo-sacral articulation. This large artery 
supplies blood to the thoracic and abdominal organs, and 
then terminates in four branches named iliacs, - — two ex- 
ternal and two internal. 

The two external iliacs correspond somewhat to the two 
axillaries in front and the two femoral arteries to the two 
humeral, for it is the femoral arteries which continue the 
external iliacs and distribute blood to the posterior limbs 
and feet. 

The two internal iliacs are smaller and distribute blood 
to the pelvic organs. 

Veins. — These usually accompany arteries. One large 
vein commonly accompanies each large artery and two small 
veins accompany each of the smaller arteries; but this is 
not a fixed law. 

The anterior vena cava corresponds to the anterior aorta 
and the jwsterior vena cava to the posterior aorta. Each 
returns the blood to the heart which its corresponding aorta 
has distributed. 

All the veins except those of the bones, small veins in the 
feet, and the veins of the brain and spinal cord, have valves. 

Valves are most common and numerous in the veins of 
the extremities and in those veins which pass through and 
among voluntary muscles. 

Pulmonary veins, four in number, have their origin within 
the lungs. They return blood fromi lungs to heart in the 
pulmonary circuit and carry pure blood. 

The anterior vena cava has its origin between the two first 
ribs at the juncture of the two jugular and two axillary 
veins. Jugular vein corresponds to carotid artery, and 
axillary vein to axillary artery. 

The posterior vena cava has its origin near the last lumbar 



36 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



vertebra by the union of the common iHac veins. It passes 

beneath and at one side of the bodies of the vertebrae, 

through liver and diaphragm, to the right auricle of the 

heart. 

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 

Parts. — The lymphatic systen^ consists of vessels and 
glands. The current in the vessels is like that in the veins 
in that it flows toward the heart and is very sluggish. 





Fig. 20. — Circulation. Diagrammatic. 

1. Heart and Blood Vessels. A, Heart ; B, pericardium ; C, anterior vena cava ; 
D, posterior vena cava ; E, anterior aorta ; F, posterior aorta. 

2. The Circulation in Diagram. A, A, Auricle-ventricle valves ; B, B, semilunar 
valves. 

Lymphatic vessels. — These have thin transparent walls 
and are found in most of the body tissues. They have valves 
like the veins and carry lymph, or, in the lacteals, chyle. 
The lacteals are lymphatic vessels which drain the digestive 
canal, chiefly the small intestines. 



CIRCULATION 37 

There are two main vessels: the thoracic and right 
lymphatic. 

The thoracic is situated along the vertebral column within 
the abdomen and thorax,, on the right side, near the heads of 
the ribs. It has its origin in one dilatation or receptacle and 
terminates in another before emptying into the anterior 
vena cava. Its opening in the vein is protected by a valve 
in order that blood may not get into the duct. This duct 
drains all the body except the right side of the face, right, 
side of head and neck, right shoulder, and right front limb. 

The right lymphatic duct is a very short vessel into which 
empty all the vessels which drain these latter regions. 

Lymph glands. — The lymph glands serve in part to re- 
move from the lymph disease germs and other harmful 
bodies. Their function is something like that of a filter. 

Function. — The lymph fluid distributes nourishment by 
osmosis directly to the body tissues, and removes waste 
materials by the same process. The nutritious materials 
are as a rule taken into the lymph from the blood, and 
waste materials which the lymph receives from the tissues 
are poured into the blood through the thoracic duct and 
the right lymphatic duct. 



LECTURE IX 

RESPIRATION 

Definition. — Respiration is the process by which the vari- 
ous tissues gain oxygen and give off impurities. Apparently, 
the plain simple purpose of respiration is twofold: (1) to 
get oxygen into the blood and various body tissues, and 
(2) to get carbonic gas (CO2) and various other organic impuri- 
ties out of the blood and body tissues. It is a common 
mistake to suppose that respiration is confined to the lungs. 
A very important portion of the true respiration occurs be- 
tween the blood and individual tissue cells apart from the 
lungs. 

Respiration includes oxidation and also elimination of 
waste products. This involves a double series of exchanges, 
one series occurring in the lungs and a reversed series occur- 
ring mainly in the tissue cells. 

Continuous oxidation processes in the body result in 
continuous production of carbonic acid gas, urea, water, 
and other waste products. 

Stages. — There are four stages in the complete act of 
respiration: (a) air comes into the lungs; (6) blood takes 
out part of the oxygen ; (c) tissues take part of the oxygen 
away from the blood and give back to the blood carbonic 
gas and other materials in exchange; and {d) the blood 
trades off its carbonic gas and other materials to the air 
for oxygen. 

Oxygen is carried to the tissues by the blood, and waste 
products are washed away from the tissues by the same 
fluid. 

The blood cannot unite with sufficient oxygen or elimi- 

38 



RESPIRATION 



39 



nate its waste materials unless it is brought in contact with 
air. It is in the lungs that the red blood cells and serum 
load up with oxygen, and it is here that carbonic gas (CO2) 
and other volatile impurities are eliminated from the blood. 
The water, CO2, and other volatile compounds in the blood 
capillaries, and oxygen in the inspired air, are separated in 
the lungs by a thin animal membrane. Nature is con- 
stantly endeavoring there to equalize pressures and satisfy 



IVATER 




OXYGEN 



HEAT 



^BON-DI-OX/Dt 



LUNGS 



BLOOD 



GA5 




BODY T/S3Uf6 



Fig. 21. — Respiration in Diagram. (M. H. R.) 



chemical affinities between free gases on one side of this 
membrane and gases held by a liquid on the other side of 
this same membrane. 

Aside from chemical combination, each gas moves either 
away according to the partial pressure of the gas on one side 
and the tension of the same gas in the liquid on the other 
side of this membrane. The tension of the oxygen in venous 
blood is estimated at 22.04 mm. mercury, and pressure in 
lung air at about 100 mm. The tension of CO2 in the 
venous blood is 41.04 mm. mercury, and in the lung air at 
23 mm. These variations in pressures and tensions do not 
appear to account for all exchange. The living tissue cells 
probably interfere with the perfect working of these forces. 

The factors that vary the proportion of oxygen con- 
sumed and CO2 excreted are : body weight, amount of body 
surface, also rate and depth of respiration. We have the 



40 VETERINARY STUDIES 

lowest rate of respiratory change in the body, during fasting 
and highest rate on a nitrogenous diet. 

The amount of oxygen absorbed and CO2 developed in- 
crease rapidly with increase of body temperature and physio- 
logical activity. Muscular activity greatly increases oxygen 
consumption. Physiologists tell us that even shivering 
multiplies the respiratory changes by two, and that external 
cold has a similar effect. 

Parts. — Respiratory system consists of nasal chambers, 
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. These organs 
are all lined with mucous membrane. Function is to bring 
blood and air so near each other that the exchange may be 
rapid and the blood take away oxygen and leave waste 
matters. 

Nostrils. — Two in number. These are openings at the 
front of the nasal cavities. The skin covering the nostrils 
is comparatively thin, quite sensitive, and supported by 
cartilages. The mucous membrane lining the nasal cham- 
bers is divided for study into two portions : the upper, in 
which are distributed the terminations of the olfactory 
nerves, and the lower, the Schneiderian. 

The inferior turbinated bones are located on the outer 
wall of each nasal cavity, two in number, scroll shaped. 

Nasal cavities. — Two in number, one on each side of a 
median partition. This partition is composed of the vomer, 
a portion of the ethmoid, and the median cartilage. Each 
cavity connects in front with the outside air through the 
nostril and behind with the pharynx through an opening 
which may be called the posterior nostril or, technically, the 
posterior nares. Each chamber also connects laterally with 
the sinuses of the head (shown in class). The floor, roof, 
and sides are formed by the various face bones, together 
with portions of the frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid, and the 
median cartilage already mentioned. 

Pharynx. — This is a muscular sac situated beneath the 
cranium, and back of the soft palate, which constitutes a 
partition between the pharynx and mouth cavities. This 



RESPIRATION 41 

organ belongs to both the respiratory and digestive systems. 
Its walls are composed of two coats : the inner mucous and 
outer muscular. It connects by openings with the nasal 
chambers above, with the mouth in front, and with the 
esophagus behind, with the lungs below, and on each side 
with the Eustachian tube to the middle ear. 

Larynx. — A cartilaginous box located at the upper end 
of the trachea and composed of five pieces — one epiglottis, 
one thyroid, two arytenoids, one cricoid. Twelve muscles 
attach to these cartilages for the purpose of controlling 
them. 

The epiglottis (a sort of lid) is a tongue-shaped piece of 
flexible cartilage which covers the entrance to the larynx. 
It is held down against the arytenoid cartilages when food 
is swallowed, but immediately afterward moves upward and 
thus opens the entrance to the larynx. It remains in this 
position during respiration. 

The thyroid cartilage (shield-like) is located at the upper 
and front portion of the larynx, extending well around on 
the sides. 

The arytenoids are two in number, one on each side. 
The two taken together are shaped somewhat like the front 
part of a pitcher, situated at the sides of the upper part of 
the larynx, coming together at the median line. These 
cartilages give attachments to the vocal cords. 

The cricoid is shaped like a ring with a process on the 
upper and front part, which causes this cartilage to resemble 
a seal ring. It is located at the lower portion of the larynx 
and connected with the trachea. 

The vocal cords are a pair of narrow fibrous bands so situ- 
ated as to include a narrow triangular space between them. 
They are attached in front to the thyroid and behind to 
the arytenoids. 

Trachea, or windpipe. — This is located beneath and in 
front of the esophagus. It is a long tube composed of about 
50 cartilage rings beginning at the cricoid cartilage above 
and terminates at the bronchi below. It therefore connects 



42 VETERINARY STUDIES 

the larnyx and bronchi. It is hned by a mucous membrane 
which is covered by cihated cells. 

Bronchi. — Are two in number, are branches of the 
trachea, and very similar to it in structure and function. 
One bronchus attaches to the root of each lung. 

Lungs. — There are two, right and left. These are the 
essential organs of respiration, and located in thoracic 
cavity. Each lung is cone-shaped and inclosed in a sepa- 
rate pleural sack (explained), and the other layer of the 
pleura lines the interior of the thorax. In the lungs of a 
horse the lobes are not distinctly marked. Some authors 
make no definite divisions; others describe the right lung 
as having three lobes, and the left two. The lobes are then 
described as anterior, middle, and posterior, the left lung 
in the horse having no middle lobe. 

In the cow's lungs the lobes are distinctly marked. The 
left lung has three distinct lobes. The right lung has four 
lobes by reason of the anterior lobe being divided into two 
parts: first and second. 

The bronchi are subdivided until they are very small and are 
then called bronchioles. Each bronchiole terminates in a very 
small cavity made by a lot of air cells opening together. These 
cells have very thin walls, and are separated by loose connec- 
tive tissue in which minute blood vessels are located. Blood 
is then separated from the air by only a very thin membrane. 

Practical application. — The student may make observa- 
tions, recording fully, concerning the probable relations be- 
tween external appearance of the chest and actual chest 
capacity. This question has frequently arisen in connection 
with discussions on bovine tuberculosis. Is the external 
appearance probably a reliable guide as to actual chest 
capacity? Why? 

Study a skeleton or chart and note the curvature of the 
ribs. Bear in mind that the ribs move forward and out- 
ward during inspiration. What relation, if any, between 
the degree of rib curvature and possible chest expansion? 
What type of nostril, nasal chamber, and larynx do you 
usually find with great lung capacity? 



LECTURE X 
DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 

Definition. — The digestive apparatus consists of various 
organs which carry on the processes of food reception, di- 
gestion, and absorption. The digestive apparatus also expels 
various undigested and waste materials. The organs of 
digestion are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, 
and intestines, together with certain other organs; viz. 
the salivary glands at the mouth, and the liver and pan- 
creas in the abdominal cavity. 

Mouth. — At the mouth we find the lips, teeth, tongue, 
and palate. 

The horse has a freely movable and sensitive upper lip, 
which is used in selecting food. The cow has hard carti- 
laginous lips and selects her food mainly by the tongue. 

The tongue is used by the cow to select and gather her 
food, and by all animals to control the food while in the 
mouth and assist in swallowing. This organ is composed 
largely of muscular tissue with some connective tissue, and 
is covered by the common mucous membrane. Its surface 
is studded with several kinds of papillae, similar to those on 
the human tongue. These aid in controlling the food while 
in the mouth and have to do with the sense of taste. They 
are especially prominent and strong on the cow's tongue. 

The hard palate forms the roof of the mouth, and consists 
of portions of the superior maxillary and palate bones 
covered by tough connective tissue, and overlaid with mu- 
cous membrane. This connective tissue and its covering 
of mucous membrane is thrown up into a series of trans- 
verse ridges, easily seen on the roof of a horse's mouth, 
sometimes called " bars." 

43 



44 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



The soft palate is a membranous structure containing 
some muscular tissue. Its function is to separate the pos- 
terior opening of the nose chamber and pharynx from the 
mouth. 

The salivary glands on each side are : one parotid, one 
submaxiHary, one subUngual, and two molar. They secrete 
saliva which helps to change insoluble and useless starch 
into a soluble and useful sugar. It also assists in swallow- 
ing by so moistening the food that it passes easily along. 




Fig. 22. — Stomach of the Horse. 

1. External View. A, Esophagus ; B, pyloric portion ; C, duodenum; E, E, left 
sac ; F, right sac. 

2. Internal View. B, Right sac ; C, duodenum ; E, esophagus. 

This is especially important for animals like the horse, cow, 
and sheep, that live upon a dry and more or less bulky food. 
The horse needs on an average about 85 pounds and the 
cow 120 pounds every 24 hours. 

The parotid is located behind the lower jaw and below 
the base of the ear. It is connected with the mouth by 
Steno's duct, through which its saliva flows to the mouth. 

The submaxillary lies in the space between the flat por- 
tions of the inferior maxilla, external to the larynx. Its 
saliva reaches the mouth through Wharton's duct, which 
opens at the side of that portion of the tongue where it 
attaches underneath. 

The sublingual lies beneath the tongue, and its saliva 



DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 45 

escapes into the mouth through 15 or 20 small ductS; the 
ducts of Rivini. 

Molar glands are two in number on each side and are 
located near, and opposite to, the molar teeth. 

The pharynx belongs to both the digestive and respiratory 
systems and was described in the lecture on respiration. 

The esophagus is a slender tube 4 to 5 feet long, 1 inch in 
diameter, connects pharynx and stomach, quite elastic. It 
is composed of two coats. The inner is mucous membrane; 
the outer is muscular and composed of two sets of fibers, 
one set encircling the esophagus and the other placed 
lengthwise. 

The stomach is located in the anterior portion of the ab- 
dominal cavity. The horse's stomach, when cut open, shows 
two distinct portions. The mucous membrane which lines 
the interior on the left side is light colored, firm, and tough, 
like the mucous membrane of the esophagus, of which it is a 
continuation. On the right side of the stomach the mu- 
cous membrane is soft and red. The horse's stomach holds 
about 3^ gallons, and the cow's stomach about 45 gallons. 
The function of the stomach is to receive food and furnish 
gastric juice to partly digest it. Stomach of the cow is 
compound, with four cavities. The first cavity, the paunch, 
is much the largest and acts as a sort of storage vat. Gas- 
tric juice is furnished by glands in right side of horse's 
stomach, and by cow's fourth stomach. Effect of gastric 
juice is to make proteid matters soluble, which it does by 
the action of its pepsin ferment, which is very active. The 
quantity of gastric juice used by horse and cow varies from 
100 lbs. to 170 lbs. in 24 hours. 

The small intestine. — This begins at the stomach, the 
common opening being guarded by the pyloris, a strong 
sphincter muscle like a purse string. The small intestine is 
divided into three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 
The small intestine is about 72 feet long in the horse and 
140 feet in the cow, and extends from the stomach to the 
caecum, at which point the large intestine begins. 



46 VETERINARY STUDIES 

The stomach, small and large intestine have the same 
three coats : inner mucous, middle muscular, and outer 
serous. 

The mucous coat in the small intestines is thickly studded 
with villi. Various intestinal glands furnish fluids which 
assist in digestion. 

The muscular coat is composed of two sets of fibers, those 
of one set encircling the bowel, and those of the other set 
are lengthwise for the purpose of producing peristaltic action 
of the intestines. 




Fig. 23. — Stomach of the Cow. 

A, A, and B, B, Different portions of the paunch or rumen ; C, termination of 
the esophagus ; D, second stomach (reticiilum) ; E, third stomach (omasum) ; 
F, F, fourth stomach (abomasum) ; G, small intestine, just beyond the pyloris ; 
H, esophagus. 

The outer coat is the peritoneum, a serous membrane 
which lines the abdominal cavity and also covers the various 
abdominal organs. 

The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing about 
11 lbs., and is situated in the abdominal cavity on the right 
side and well forward against the diaphragm. It manu- 
factures about 12 lbs. of bile in 24 hours. The liver shows 
four fairly distinct lobes, named — the left, right, middle, 
and Spigelian. The liver is inclosed in a strong capsule 



DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 47 

called Glisson's capsule. The cow has a gall bladder, but 
the horse has none and the bile flows more or less constantly 
into the intestine. The bile aids somewhat in digestion of 
fats. It has also a slight cathartic effect: it aids absorp- 
tion and tends to prevent putrefaction. The liver cells con- 
vert sugar from the blood into animal starch (glycogen), 
and store it up as such, and finally they reconvert this glyco- 
gen into soluble sugar and give it out to the blood in pro- 
portion as the blood loses its sugar. 

The pancreas, smaller than liver, weighing only 17 oz., 
but it furnishes about 11 lbs. pancreatic fluid daily. Located 
in abdominal cavity below aorta and behind stomach and 
liver. Ends are called head and tail. Shape is long, tri- 
angular, much like a big salivary gland. Pancreatic fluid 
empties into intestine at or near the bile duct. This fluid 
contains four different ferments: one acts on starch, one on 
protein, one on fats, and one curdles milk. This is prob- 
ably the most important of the digestive fluids. 

The large intestine is about 25 feet long in horse, capacity 
33 gallons. In cow 42 feet long, capacity 18 gallons. Parts : 
caecum, large colon, small colon. 

Ccecum (blind pouch) in horse 3 J feet long, capacity 7^ 
gallons. Important in digestion of cellulose. 

Large colon in horse 12 feet long, capacity 20 gallons. 

Small colon in horse 10 feet long, capacity 6 gallons. In 
cow large and small colon are studied together, and are 35 
feet long, with a capacity of 14 gallons. 

Large intestine of both animals is long, large, and saccu- 
lated to hold contents a long time and offer a large amount 
of absorbing surface. It takes contents about five days to 
pass through the alimentary tract of cow, and about three 
days to pass through that of horse. 

Practical exercise. — At this point the student may have 
a practical and interesting exercise by dissecting out the 
gullet, stomach and intestines, liver and pancreas of one or 
more domestic animals. Sheep and hogs are convenient to 
handle and very satisfactory if but one or two animals can 



48 VETERINARY STUDIES 

be used. This work may be taken up in connection with 
classes in " Dressing and Curing Meats '' or in the dissection 
room. The student should actually see and handle these 
organs, and should measure lengths and capacities and 
weigh the various organs and record fully by notes and 
drawings. 



LECTURE XI 

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 

Definition. — Digestion is a chemical process by which 
food matters are made soluble and capable of absorption. 

The digestive fluids are saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic 
juice, bile, and intestinal juice. These are the active agents 
which bring about the chemical changes necessary to make 
food matters soluble and absorbable. 

Food groups are of two general classes: organic and in- 
organic. 

The organic group is divided into three subgroups: car- 
bohydrates (sugars and starches); proteids (egg albumen, 
casein, gluten, etc.); and hydrocarbons (fats and oils). 

The inorganic group includes water, lime, sulphur, phos- 
phorus, etc. 

COURSE AND HISTORY OF FOOD GROUPS 

Carbohydrates. — Starch cells are broken up by the teeth, 
and the starch is changed by the saliva and pancreatic 
juice into soluble sugars. Physiologists differ somewhat as 
to details, but during the process of digestion at least two 
sugars — dextrose (grape sugar), maltose, and dextrine, an 
intermediate body between sugar and starch, are formed. 
After these chemical changes comes absorption, then dis- 
tribution. A large part of the starch products are taken 
into the portal circulation and carried to the liver. The 
remainder enters the general circulation. The portion car- 
ried to the liver is there changed back to a form of starch, 
called glycogen. As the blood loses its sugar, it is resup- 
plied from the liver. Thus the liver becomes a storehouse 

E 49 



50 VETERINARY STUDIES 

for surplus sugar and at the same time acts as a balance 
wheel in maintaining a uniform percentage of this material 
in the blood. The sugar is ultimately oxidized, liberating 
heat, CO2, and water. These are excreted by the skin, 
lungs, and kidneys. 

Proteids. — These are not affected by the saliva, but are 
changed to soluble peptone by the gastric and pancreatic 
juices, then absorbed into the blood current, and ultimately 
distributed to tissue cells of the body to replace worn-out 
parts or to build up new parts in growing animals. 

It has been held that proteid matters were especially 
necessary to repair tissue worn out by mechanical work; 
but there is good reason to think that this has been overesti- 
mated in the past, and that the carbohydrates have much 
to do with the ultimate source of physical power. 

It is probable that surplus proteids are extensively con- 
verted into fat, and stored as such in the tissues of the fat- 
tening animal, or excreted as butter fat by the milch cow 
or nursing mare. The remaining proteids are finally oxi- 
dized, and excreted from the body as CO2, urea, and water. 
The urea is mainly excreted by the kidneys, and the water 
by all the excretory organs. 

Fats, or hydrocarbons. — These are digested mainly by 
the pancreatic fluid. They are not acted on by either 
saliva or gastric juice and but slightly by the bile. The 
pancreatic fluid emulsifies a portion which reaches the 
lacteals in this condition. The remainder is digested by 
separating the glycerine from the fatty acid (fat consists of a 
fatty acid plus glycerine). Glycerine is readily soluble and 
easily absorbed. The fatty acid unites with alkaline ma- 
terial from the bile and pancreas to form soluble soap, and 
thus the remainder of the fat is absorbed. Then comes ab- 
sorption of this emulsified and digested fat, distribution in 
the blood current, and finally assimilation, i.e. building 
into cell tissues or oxidation. It may be deposited either 
into and become a part of the cell bodies or it may be de- 
posited between the cells and thus become a stored reserve. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 51 

Under some conditions this storing up of fatty matter may 
constitute a diseased condition, as when the heart muscle 
undergoes fatty infiltration. The final changes which fats 
undergo are oxidation and then excretion as CO2 and water. 

Practical application and suggestions. — Mature animals 
need a constant supply of food to supply heat and energy 
for physical work, and in the case of fattening animals for 
conversion into storage fat. Young and growing animals 
must have food to supply heat and energy for physical w^ork, 
and in addition food from which new cells may be built. 

The more thorough the digestion and absorption, the 
better will be the returns for food consumed. 

Thorough digestion with imperfect absorption means 
wasted feed and useless work for the digestive organs. 

Generous feeding therefore is not enough. It must be 
done intelligently. 

Best results are secured when the bowels are in a medium 
condition between diarrhea and constipation. 

Both digestion and absorption depend to a considerable 
extent upon the condition of the mucous membrane lining 
the digestive tube and through which absorption must take 
place. 

Water horses before feeding and do not give more than 
one half pail within an hour after feeding, if you wish to get 
the very best results from food consumed with the least risk 
to health. 

There is usually no profit in grinding grain for horses, un- 
less they have poor teeth or eat rapidly, and yet the old 
street-car system may be practical and economical when 
done on a large scale, if the mechanical work can be done 
cheaply. This method is to cut and wet the hay or straw, 
then mix in the ground grain. This is a very safe method 
and secures thorough digestion and absorption, and in ad- 
dition the horses so fed are not stuffed with hay. 

Feed only as much hay at one time as the horse will clean 
up at each feed with the grain, approximately 10 lbs. to 15 
lbs. per 24 hours. Feeders are usually surprised to find how 



52 VETERINARY STUDIES 

well their horses do with greatly reduced hay ration and the 
same grain. There is less danger from stomach and bowel 
troubles, and almost no danger at all from heaves. 

Beware of dry bran for horses that eat hurriedly. They 
are liable to choke on it. 

When an animal is choked, do not try to force any straight 
and stiff object down its throat. There is great danger of 
rupturing the esophagus near the pharynx. 

The cow has an entirely different stomach as to its plan 
and size, and the intestinal canal is nearly twice as long. 
Her large paunch and the other stomachs, as well as the 
long intestine, indicate that she can utilize a coarser diet 
than the horse, and that she can digest and absorb such 
foods more thoroughly. They also indicate that nature in- 
tends her to eat larger quantities at a time and at longer 
intervals than the horse, and that the same is true as to the 
water she drinks. 

Idle horses are frequently overfed. This is not only a 
waste of food but an actual injury to the horse, and gives 
danger of such diseases as azoturia, lymphangitis (elephant 
leg), and heaves. 

A horse on ordinary work needs from 30 to 50 per cent 
more grain with the same roughage as compared with idle 
horses. The horse that is in high flesh and idle needs still 
less grain as compared with the horse that works. Horses 
on winter pasture, cornfields, etc., need from one third to 
one fourth as much grain as when at moderate work. The 
horse that is off work should have exercise every day if 
possible. Exercise lessens very much the danger from many 
diseases. 



LECTURE XII 



URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS 

Urinary organs are kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra. 

Kidneys. — These important organs are situated in the 
sublumbar regions, supported in place by large blood vessels 
and connective tissue. They differ in shape, size, and loca- 
tion, the right one being larger, farther forward, and more 
nearly round. Each is covered by a fibrous capsule from 
which bundles of 
connective tissue 
branch to penetrate 
the organ and form 
a framework. 

Internal structure, 
— On cutting open 
a kidney we may 
see two distinct por- 
tions separated by 
a wavy line, and a 
cavity at the root. 
The two portions are 
cortical (outside), 
medullary (center). 

The cavity at the root, called pelvis, is merely the funnel- 
shaped origin of the ureter. 

The arterioles terminate and the urine tubules have their 
origin in the cortical portion. These little urine tubes make 
up a large part of the bulk of the kidney. Each tubule be- 
gins somewhere in the cortical portion in a little saclike 
cavity, within which is a tangled network of finest arterioles. 

53 




Fig. 24. — Lengthwise Section of the Horse's 
Kidney. 



a, Cortical portion 
pelvis ; g, ureter. 



6, medullary portion; d, d, d, 



54 VETERINARY STUDIES 

The little sac narrows at the open end, and from this nar- 
rowed neck continue the tubules. Each tubule makes cer- 
tain convolutions, then descends to the medullary portion, 
thence back to the cortical, where it makes certain other 
convolutions, and finally terminates in a larger duct through 
which the urine escapes to the pelvis of the kidney and then 
into the ureter. Each tubule is thus very long in proportion 
to its size, and there are a large number of them. 

Function of the kidneys : (a) Removal of useless or waste 
and poisonous materials from the blood; (6) removal of 
normal substances from the blood when they are there in 
excess; (c) to keep the blood normally alkaline by remov- 
ing from or adding alkaline materials to the blood as 
needed. 

How accomplished. — The water and salts in solution are 
removed from the blood within the little sacs at the begin- 
nings of the tubules by a process of filtration under pressure, 
the pressure on the blood, inside the fine arterioles within 
the urine tubule sac, being greater than the pressure on 
the water in the sac around the arterioles. The urea, albu- 
men, etc., are passed out into the water farther along the 
tubule. These are taken from the blood by the cells which 
line the tubules. 

Coinposition. — Urine is composed of water, salts of so- 
dium, potassium, calcium, etc., together with various organic 
matters, as urea and uric acid, and various aromatic sub- 
stances which give the odor. Normal reaction in herbiv- 
orous animals is alkaline. Specific gravity for horse is 
1036, and for cow 1025. Either may vary within the normal 
range. Horse excretes about 10 pints in 24 hours, and the 
cow about 25 pints. Within limits the more nitrogen in 
feed of cow the greater amount of urine is excreted. Urine 
is excreted by the kidneys continuously and runs drop by 
drop into the bladder. 

Ureters. — These are two slender tubes which conduct 
urine from kidneys to bladder. They are about the size of 
a goose quill, about one foot long, and terminate at the 



URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS 



55 



L. KIDNEY 



bladder, passing for an inch along between the muscular 
and mucous coats of that organ, before reaching the in- 
terior. This is to prevent backward flow of urine into 
ureters. 

Bladder. — This is a muscular sac, a urine reservoir, lo- 
cated in the inferior and anterior part of the pelvic cavity 
and ovoid in shape. This /P>a. 

organ is supported in 
place by a variety of liga- 
ments. It is in relation 
above, in the male, to 
the rectum; in the fe- 
male, to the vagina and 
below to the floor of the 
pelvis. It is covered in 
front by peritoneum and 
is in relation to the URETER 
coiled small intestine. 

Ojpenings. — Three on 
the posterior of the or- 
gan; viz. one to the 
urethra, and two for the 
ureters. The neck of 
the bladder is composed 
of a band of yellow 
elastic tissue around 
urethra and is pulled 
open by longitudinal 
muscle fibers when urine 
is to be passed. There are 
no distinct sphincter or 
muscle fibers at the neck. 

Coats. — Three: mucous, muscular (of several layers), 
and serous (peritoneal). 

Urethra. — This is the canal which conducts urine from 
bladder to exterior of body. 




Fig. 25. — Urinary Apparatus in Diagram. 
(M. H. R.) 

P, A, Posterior aorta ; D, D, renal arteries ; 
P, peritoneal coat of bladder ; Mus., muscular 
coat ; Muc, mucous coat. 




56 VETERINARY STUDIES 

MAMMARY GLANDS 

The cow's udder is taken as a type. The glands are lo- 
cated under the inguinal region and supported by skin^ 
loose connective tissue, and bands of white fibrous tissue 
which attach to the fibrous tunic of the abdomen and act as 
ligaments to help support the organ. The udder is covered 
by thin, soft skin and fine hair. 

Anatomy. — The udder is divided into two lateral halves. 
Each half has two glands, front and back, and each half is 

incased in a fibrous sac of yellow 
elastic tissue. 

The substance of each gland is 

made up of yellow glandular tissue, 

connective tissue, nerves, blood 

vessels, etc. Each gland is divided 

^ „ ^ ^ into lobes, and these a^ain into 

Fig. 26. — One Quarter and ^ -, t 
Teat op Cow's Udder. lobuleS. 

.„ .■ ■ '\^ There is one small milk duct for 

C, milk cistern. Note con- 
striction just below the cistern, each/ lobulc. Ihese UUlte iuto 

trHoi:"^tw„°i„tLlL1 larger and larger ducts, and thus 
above, are milk ducts cut the milk is conveyed into the milk 

across. . , 

Cistern. 

A milk cistern is located just above the base of each teat. 
This receives milk from the milk ducts — capacity, 1 pint 
to 1 quart. Milk escapes from cistern through a single 
large canal. 

Development. — The gland structure is undeveloped and 
rudimentary until maturity, and only becomes active at the 
close of the first pregnancy. 

Function. — Natural function is supplying sufficient milk 
to the calf until it can subsist on other foods. 

Milk production. — The production of the casein, sugar, 
fat, etc., is a manufacturing process, not mere filtration ; for 
there is no casein or milk sugar in blood and but very little 
fat. Secreting cells take certain elements from the blood 
and put them together so as to make the milk ingredients. 




URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS 57 

Products. — Milk is a complex alkaline fluid ; specific 
gravity 1018 to 1040, composed of oil globules suspended in 
milk plasma, and is therefore an emulsion. Milk globules 
consist almost entirely of fat, with 
a thin coating of casein. They 
are from .0004 to .0012 of an inch 
in diameter. Milk plasma consists 
of water, with sugar, salt, albu- 
men, and whatever may be in 
solution in the water. 

/-i T , • n • 1 1 • 1 Fig. 27. — Milk Vesicles and 

Colostrum is a fluid which ac- outlet Ducts. Magnified. 

cumulates in the udder during the 

latter part of pregnancy, and differs from milk in con- 
taining the colostrum cells, a few oil globules, much albu- 
men, and but little casein, fat, or sugar. It has a mild, ca- 
thartic effect on the young animals. 

The quantity and quality of the milk depends on several 
factors: food, period^of lactation, period of gestation, con- 
dition of the nervous system, quantity of blood passing 
through the udder, amount of water in the food, individual 
peculiarity, or hereditary tendency. Breed would naturally 
be included under the latter. 

Blood supply. — The mammary glands receive their sup- 
ply through the mammary artery, which distributes branches 
through the two glands in each half of the udder, one artery 
on each side. The blood for one half the udder thus comes 
through the external iliac artery, then through a branch of 
that, the prepubic, and then through a branch of the pre- 
pubic, the external pudic. 

The mammary artery is one of the terminal branches of the 
external pudic. When the cow stands still, more blood flows 
through the udder than when she is exercising. The large 
vein which may be felt in front of the udder on each side, and 
called by dairymen the '' milk vein/' is properly the sub- 
cutaneous abdominal vein. 

Nerve supply. — The mammary glands have their nerve 
supply through the first lumbar pair of spinal nerves. The 



58 VETERINARY STUDIES 

nerve trunk which reaches the gland on each side divides 
into three branches, the second and third of which regulate 
in an interesting way the various phenomena of cell activity, 
blood supply, and caliber of the milk ducts. These processes 
are all directly under control of the nervous S3^stem. 

Why last milk drawn is richer in fat than the first : There 
is a comparatively small amount of milk stored in the cis- 
terns and ducts when milking begins, and then as milking 
goes on the secreting cells manufacture the fat, casein, 
sugar, etc., more rapidly in proportion than the process by 
which water and matters in solution are taken from the 
blood, and thus the later milk has less water or more solids 
than the first drawn. 

Practical suggestions. — Mare's milk differs from cow's 
milk in possessing more water and sugar and less fat, casein, 
albumen, and mineral matter. Her udder differs from the 
cow's udder in having but one gland in each half. There 
are from two to four cisterns at the base of the teat instead 
of one, and each cistern has an excretory canal to the point 
of the teat. 

A cow's udder may consist largely of gland tissue with 
just enough connective tissue to support it and hold shape; 
it may consist largely of connective tissue with a relatively 
smaller amount of gland tissue. What is the probable 
structure of the udder that remains large and hard after 
milking? What are some of the reasons why small udders 
may produce well and large udders produce poorly? 

Note the large vein running from under the udder for- 
ward under the belly. This is the abdominal subcutaneous 
vein previously mentioned; it varies greatly in size and 
shape, and drains the inguinal region, including the udder. 
What possible relation is there between the size of this 
vein and milk-producing capacity of the udder? 

What effect has unusual nerve excitement on the produc- 
tion of milk? Explain this effect. 



LECTURE XIII 



THE FOOT 



The foot, technically, includes all structures at and below 
the knee in front and the hock behind. This lecture only 
deals with that portion of the foot below the ankle. 

Bones. — First phalanx; two sesamoid bones; second pha- 
lanx; navicular bone; and third 
phalanx. For first and second 
phalanges, sesamoids, and na- 
vicular, see Lecture III. 

The third phalanx is an irregu- 
lar bone of loose spongy texture. 
The body is shaped somewhat 
like the hoof and shows at the 
top in front a prominence called 
the pyramidal process, and on 
each side a projection called the 
wing, under which may be seen 
a groove, through which groove 
an artery passes on its way to 
form part of an arch within the 
substance of the bone. From 
this arch is given off the 
branches which distribute 
nourishment to the vascular 
parts. Above the wings, inside 

the hoof, are cavities into which lanx (os pedis) ; 7, basilar process 
,, , , , ^., „^ ^. 8, 8, wings; 9, pyramidal process. 

the lateral cartilages fit. I hey 

are of firm cartilage and may be felt above the crown of 

the hoof on each side. They are attached below to the 

59 




Fig. 28. — Bones of the Horse's 
Foot. 

1, Metacarpal ; 2, 2, sesamoids ; 
3, first phalanx ; 4, second phalanx ; 
5, navicular bone ; 6, third pha- 



60 VETERINARY STUDIES 

wings of the third phalanx and plantar cushion. To 
the front and sides of the third phalanx are attached 
the sensitive laminae. The inferior surface is concaved to 
receive the sensitive sole, or velvety tissue. 

The navicular hone is also a sesamoid bone; i.e. it is 
formed in tendon. It is a short bone in structure, but rather 
long and slender in shape, and placed crosswise just back 
of the articulation between the second and third phalanges. 
Its inferior surface is smooth except for a slight ridge in 
the center. The tendon of the deep flexor muscle passes 
over this surface on its way to its insertion on the bottom 
of the third phalanx. The ends of the navicular bone unite 
on each side with the wings of the third phalanx by tough 
fibrous tissue. 

The horny hoof. — This is to be regarded as an appendage 
of the skin. It covers all of the third phalanx and part of 
the second. It is divided for study into wall, sole, and frog. 

The wall is that part which may be seen when looking at 
the hoof in front and at the sides. It is composed of horny, 
tubular fibers, wliich grow from the coronary band. Be- 
tween these tubular fibers is a material which holds them 
together. The wall is divided into toe, quarters, and heels. 
At the top is a groove into which the coronary band fits, 
the crown of the hoof. The wall unites below with the sole. 
The smooth shining layer which should cover the whole 
surface of the wall is periople. The duty of this layer is 
to prevent undue evaporation from the hoof. Beneath the 
periople is the horny wall which gives shape to the foot 
and protects the soft parts within. Inside this hard layer 
come the laminae; these are thin leaves of horny material 
which dovetail in with the sensitive laminae. 

The sole is composed of horny material resembling that 
of the wall. It is concave below, convex above. Its outer 
border unites with the wall at the '' white Hne.'' Its upper 
surface is covered by the vascular velvety tissue. 

The frog is a V-shaped elastic pad with a depression, 
called by horsemen " the cleft,'' in its ground surface. It is 



THE FOOT 61 

located between the bars on each side, and below the plantar 
cushion. Its function is to act as a pad and to lessen jar 
when traveling. 

The matrix (horn-generating membrane). — This fits inside 
the horny part of the hoof and covers like a stocking the 
other parts within the hoof. It is from this that all the 




Fig. 29. — The Hoof. 

The Wall. A, Toe ; B, quarter ; C, heel. 

Ground Surface, a-a, Toe ; 0-6, quarter ; h-d, heel ; c, bar ; /, /, /, sole ; g, white 
line ; h, frog ; I, cleft of the frog. 

horny parts grow. It is composed of three parts: (1) coro- 
nary band; (2) sensitive laminae; (3) velvety tissue. 

The coronary band is the elastic ring that may be felt at 
the crown of the hoof. It is studded with little papillae. 
From these grow downward the tubular fibers which make 
up the hard layer of the wall. 

The sensitive lamince are 500 to 600 layers of vascular 
tissue into which fit and from which grow the horny laminae 
of the wall. An inflammation here is called laminitis or 
founder. 

The velvety tissue covers the upper surface of the hard sole. 
Like the coronary band and sensitive laminae, it is sensitive 
and richly supplied with blood. The under surface is 
thickly studded with papillae, similar to those of the coronary 
band, and from these in a similar way grow the shorter 
tubular fibers which make up the hard sole and frog. The 
student can easily understand why injury to the coronary 



62 VETERINARY STUDIES 

band; which results in a heahng by scar tissue^ leaves a 
split which lengthens downward in the hoof; why founder 
is so painful; and why deep injuries to the sole are so apt 
to be serious. 

The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of elastic tis- 
sue located between the lateral cartilages on each side, below 
the sole of the third phalanx and above the horny sole of the 
hoof. It assists the horny frog in lessening jar in travel and 
protects the insertion of the deep flexor tendon. 

^^ The back tendons " is a term used by horsemen to in- 
clude the tendons of the superficial and deep flexor muscles 
of the foot and the suspensory ligament. 

The superficial flexor muscle, of the front foot, has its 
origin on the lower end of the humerus and its insertion by 
tendon on the sides of the second phalanx. Its function is 
to flex the foot at the first jnterphalangeal articulation. 

The deep flexor muscle, of the front foot, has its origin in 
common with the superficial flexor on the lower end of the 
humerus, and its insertion by a tendon which spreads out on 
the sole of the third phalanx. Its duty is to flex the second 
and to assist in flexing the first interphalangeal articulation. 

The suspensory ligament is broad and very strong. It at- 
taches by its upper end to the carpal bones and to the large 
metacarpal. Its lower end divides into two branches which 
pass forward on each side and attach to the front tendon. 
Its duty is to support the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation 
(fetlock). 

PRACTICAL APPLICATION 

The shape and peculiar characteristics of each hoof cor- 
respond in correlation with the remainder of the limb, 
except as the hoof has been varied by artificial means. So 
in judging the hoof it is also necessary to consider the char- 
acteristics of the entire limb. 

The front limb may be said to be normal in position and 
direction when it appears on front view that a vertical line 
from the front of the scapulo-humeral articulation passes 



THE FOOT 



63 




down the center of the Hmb and to the ground at the center 
of the toe. 

On viewing such a limb from the side it should be evi- 
dent that a vertical line downward from the bony promi- 
nence at the middle of the scapula 
would divide the external surface 
of the limb into two equal por- 
tions and reach the ground im- 
mediately back of the heels. 

Viewing the hoof and pastern 
alone it should be seen that the 
hoof is in direct line with the pas- 
tern and metacarpal or metatarsal 
bones, and that a line extending 
from the center of the cannon 
through the center of the pastern 
would pass through the center of ^'^- 30.-The Hoof Matrix. 

. -, , 1, Periople ring ; 2, coronary 

Xne XOe. band ; 3, sensitive laminse ; 4, 

The hind hmb when viewed ^^^^- Velvety tissue not shown 
from behind should show that a 

vertical line downward from the prominence at the pos- 
terior portion of the pelvis on each side (tuberosity of the 
ischium) would divide the entire limb into two equal 
portions and reach the ground back of the center of the 
horny frog. 

Viewed from the side the normal hind limb should indicate 
that a vertical line, dropped from the prominence of the 
articulation between the femur and pelvis, should reach the 
ground opposite a point near the center of the hoof. This 
line is somewhat difficult to get, and of less value for the 
reason that a slight leaning forward or backward disturbs it. 
This should be taken when the horse is standing with the 
limb squarely under the body in a natural position for the 
particular animal examined. 

For the front hoof the wall at the toe and the anterior 
surface of the pastern should make an angle of not less 
than 45 nor more than 50 degrees with the level ground 



64 VETERINARY STUDIES 

surface, the wall at the toe and the anterior surface of the 
pastern having the same slant. 

For a normal hind hoof the angle should be from 50 to 55 
degrees, and the anterior faces of the hoof and pastern 
should still have the same slant. 

A normal hoof has a good quality of horn, wide heels, and 
circular rather than long and narrow ground surface. The 
hind hoof is narrower and more pointed at the toe than the 
front hoof. The wall from coronary band to ground surface 
should be straight and smooth; ix. no ridges or grooves. 
The heels should be rounded, well developed, and of the same 
height at the top of the coronary band. The sole should be 
distinctly concave and show no marked separation from the 
wall. The frog should be large and elastic, the two portions 
of the same size, with a shallow groove along the center. 
The bars should be straight, extending forward and inward. 
The lateral cartilages, felt above the coronary band on each 
side, should be elastic. The sole in the angles between the bar 
and the wall at the heel should not show red stain. There 
should be no separation of the horny fibers as in toe or 
quarter cracks. The wall should be reasonably thick. 
This can be usually determined by tapping the wall with a 
hammer, noticing its rigidity. 



LECTURE XIV 

PATHOLOGY 

Physiology is the study of the body organs and their 
functions in health. 

Pathology is the study of diseased organs and their dis- 
ordered functions. Healthy conditions are taken as a basis 
for studying the diseased conditions. Pathological processes 
are but healthy ones modified. 

HYPEREMIA CONGESTION 

Definition. — Hypersemia is an abnormal accumulation of 
blood in any part, due either to an increased inflow or a 
decreased outflow. The color of an hyperaemic part may be 
distinctly red in active hypersemia or bluish in passive 
hypersemia. 

There are two kinds of hypera^mia, active and passive. 
Generally speaking, both types are local conditions. 

Active hypercemia is characterized by an excessive quan- 
tity of blood in the arteries of some tissue or organ. It is 
caused by agencies that produce dilation of the arteries, as 
body temperature disturbances, chemical irritants, etc. It 
may be the result of lack of blood elsewhere in the body; 
e.g. sudden chilling of the skin of a horse frequently pro- 
duces active hypersemia of the lung or other internal organs. 
Active hypersemia is usually temporary, and permanent in- 
jury may be slight or may not occur. An active hypersemia 
may lead, if long continued, to enlargement of the part or 
organ. The vessels themselves may enlarge to several 
times their former size. 

Passive hypercemia (venous or mechanical) is a condition 
in which the current of venous blood is obstructed and 

F 65 



66 VETERINARY STUDIES 

blood accumulates in veins and capillaries. The condition 
may be due to weakened heart action or to obstruction in 
veins, and less frequently to obstruction in arteries or capil- 
laries. Some of the local changes that may follow passive 
congestion are exudation of serum, abnormal development 
of connective tissue, clots in the vessels, or local tissue 
death. 

ANiEMIA 

Definition. — Anaemia is an abnormal condition charac- 
terized by a deficiency or poor quality of blood. Anaemia 
due to deficiency may thus be either general or local; if 
to poor quality, it is always general. 

General anaemia. — This refers to a state of ill health 
characterized by general lack of blood — usually to lack of 
red blood corpuscles or lack of other constituents. This 
may be caused by hemorrhage, poor nutrition, destruction 
of red cells, or disease of blood-forming tissues. 

Local anaemia. — Local anaemia may be due to : (a) pres- 
sure upon the part; (h) contraction of arteries supplying 
this part; (c) excessive blood elsewhere in the body; (d) cold 
or chemical agents. 

Results. — Anaemia results in general in tissue starvation 
and deprivation of oxygen. Its seriousness depends upon 
its extent, location, and duration. Anaemia may be very 
serious in vital organs or much less important in such organs 
as the skin and muscles. During anaemia, nutritive changes 
are restricted and the processes of excretion are checked. 
Waste products therefore accumulate. 

Complete and persistent anaemia results in death of the 
tissue (necrosis). 

INFLAMMATION 

Definition. — Inflammation is the response of a tissue 
to an injury. It is a complex pathological process consist- 
ing of disturbances of circulation, and constructive and de- 
structive tissue changes. Pain, heat, redness, and swelling 
are the cardinal symptoms of inflammation. 



PATHOLOGY 67 

The changes which occur in the blood vessels during in- 
flammation are: (1) dilatation of arteries, capillaries, and 
veins; (2) current velocity increased at first, then decreased; 

(3) when the velocity begins to decrease, the corpuscles col- 
lect in capillaries and small veins and the white corpuscles 
adhere to their walls, thus obstructing the blood current; 

(4) both kinds of corpuscles and the blood plasma may pass 
through walls of small veins and capillaries. 

The changes of an inflamed tissue are variable. In the 
beginning of an inflammation the causing agent produces 
cell degeneration, and in some instances cell death, whereas 
in the later stages of inflammation there may be cell mul- 
tiplication and construction of tissue; e.g. healing of a 
wound. 

Inflammation varies according to (a) resisting power of 
tissue, (6) activity of cause, (c) length of time cause is in 
action. 

Causes of inflammation are: (1) Mechanical injury, 
chemical action, excessive tissue activity, extremes of heat 
and cold, etc. Inflammation thus caused has little tend- 
ency to spread beyond the part injured, and there is usually 
little or no pus unless pus germs invade the inflamed area. 

(2) ^^ Microbes,'' ^^ microorganisms," ^^ bacteria,'' and 
^^ germs " are synonymous terms as commonly used. These 
can cause inflammation without the aid of other local injury. 
Inflammation may be caused directly by their mechanical 
presence and activity, but it is more commonly caused by 
chemical agents which the germs manufacture. 

Terminations. — Inflammation may terminate in (a) reso- 
lution, (5) death of the tissue, or (c) new growths. 

Resolution. — In this case the exudate is liquefied and 
removed by the lymphatics and veins, or it is carried out by 
leucocytes (white corpuscles). The blood current then 
starts again in the small vessels; the corpuscles move away 
in the reestablished current or else become degenerated and 
then removed, and the organ or tissue becomes normal 
again. 



68 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Local death. — If death of the part occurs^ tissues may 
be dissolved arid absorbed or the part may slough. In 
either case the inflammation may extend to and involve 
surrounding tissues, and thus the life of the animal may be 
ultimately destroyed. 

If new growths occur, there develop new tissues; e.g. 
tumors, granulations in a wound, and scar tissue. 

FEVER 

Definition. — Fever is an abnormal condition character- 
ized by an excess of heat in the body. It is not a disease, 
but merely a symptom of disease. 

Cause. — Any disturbance that causes an increase of heat 
production or decrease of heat loss, usually the former. 
Fever should be distinguished from overheat ; the former is 
an increased body temperature due to increased heat pro- 
duction or decreased heat loss, and the latter is an exces- 
sively high body temperature not the result of disturbance 
of heat production or heat dissipation, but caused by absorp- 
tion and accumulation of heat from without. The normal 
temperature of horse is 100 to 101.5 degrees F. One hun- 
dred and four degrees F. is called high, 106 degrees F. very 
high. Normal temperature of adult cattle varies from 100 
to 102.5 degrees; of sheep from 100 to 104 degrees. Nerv- 
ous system has control of both heat production and heat 
loss. The body temperature is therefore a balance or rela- 
tion between heat production and heat loss. 

Heat production. — The source of animal heat is the oxi- 
dation of body tissue and fuel materials in the blood and 
the consequent breaking up of complex chemical compounds 
into simpler ones. The principal heat-furnishing organs are 
the muscles and secreting glands. . 

Heat expenditure. — Body heat is normally expended 
about as follows: warming food and drink, 2 per cent; 
warming air in lungs, 5 per cent; evaporation from lungs, 
8 per cent; evaporation of moisture from the skin surface 



PATHOLOGY 69 

and radiation from skin, 85 per cent. The expenditure of 
heat in evaporation of moisture from the skin surface is very 
much larger than either of the others. On an average there 
is sufficient heat developed daily in a body of a medium- 
sized horse to raise 4550 gallons of water 1.8 degrees F. 

Symptoms of fever. — (a) Elevation of temperature ; 
(6) dry, hot skin (not always present); (c) pulse and respi- 
ration quickened (normal pulse of horse, 36 to 45; normal 
respiration 8 to 14 per minute); (d) scanty urine; (e) loss of 
flesh. 

Kinds of fever. — Classified according to course are : 
(a) continuous, with but slight variation; (b) remittent^ 
varies greatly during the day, but does not get down to 
normal; (c) intermittent, in which the temperature varies 
at different portions of the day and reaches normal at a 
certain time each day; (d) relapsing, fever comes at certain 
intervals, with a period of one or more days of normal 
temperature between. 

Stages of fever. — (a) The initial, or beginning; (b) the 
acme or highest point; (c) decline. The initial stage may 
be either short or long, according to the patient and disease. 
The decline may be slow or rapid. 

Results. — (a) Emaciation, or general atrophy, more or 
less severe, according to the duration and height of the 
fever, and caused by continued unusual oxidation of body 
tissues; (h) death may occur; or (c) recovery. Death may 
occur suddenly, or the final changes may occur gradually. 
The recovery may be partial or complete, slow or rapid, 
depending on : the nature of the disease of which the fever 
is a symptom or condition; the native vigor or vital con- 
stitution of the patient; and the conditions under which the 
patient is kept and under which the disease runs its course. 



LECTURE XV 

PATHOLOGY — Continued 

Hemorrhage is the escape of blood from its natural 
channels. 

Causes. — (1) Injury to the vessel walls, as when cut or 
torn; (2) diseases of the vessel walls, e.g. fatty or calcareous 
degeneration; (3) excessive blood pressure inside the vessel, 
as in hypertrophy of the heart with excessive strength and 
activity, resulting in rupture of the vessels; (4) change in 
the quality of the blood with weakness in the vessel walls. 

Dropsy is any abnormal collection of serous fluid in any 
cavity or tissue of the body. This may occur in the ab- 
dominal cavity, in the chest cavity, ventricles of the brain, 
or in loose tissues under the skin. Of those places outside 
the large cavities, the most common are the limbs and lower 
portions of abdomen. Dropsical fluid is usually of pale 
straw color, nearly neutral in chemical reaction, and slightly 
heavier than water. 

Cause of dropsy. — (1) Any local increase of blood pres- 
sure ; (2) any interference with flow of blood in the veins ; 
(3) obstruction in capillaries, which is quite common in 
diseases of the liver or kidneys. 

Dropsy may be either general or local. 

General dropsy may affect the subcutaneous connective 
tissue over a large area, and any of the serous body cavities. 
It may be due to conditions associated with anaemia, heart 
trouble, or kidney disease. 

Local dropsy is limited to some one organ or cavity, and 
may be due to local mechanical obstruction in the veins or 
lymphatic vessels. 

Hypertrophy is any enlargement of any part or organ of 
the body. It may be due to either an increase in the num- 

70 



PATHOLOGY 71 

ber of elements^ or an increase in the size of existing elements, 
or to a combination of two conditions. Hypertrophy may 
be either physiological, healthy, or pathological, diseased. 

Physiological hypertrophy is illustrated in the blacksmith's 
arm, where there is enlargement of muscles, due to an in- 
€reased exercise and therefore increased nutrition to the 
muscles. If one kidney be removed, the other enlarges to 
compensate. 

Pathological hypertrophy is illustrated in ^^ elephant leg '' 
of horses, a condition in which the connective tissue of the 
skin and underlying parts increases in quantity, resulting 
in enlargement. ^ 

In any hypertrophy the newly formed elements are more 
nearly like the normal when the circulation is most vigorous.. 

Atrophy is the opposite of hypertrophy and is charac- 
terized by decrease in bulk and weight, as, for instance, 
sweeny of the shoulder muscles in horses. Atrophy may be 
general or local, and the decrease in size may be due either 
to decrease in size or number, or to decrease both in size and 
number, of the elements. 

Local atrophy may be caused by: (1) decreased amount 
of blood and decreased nutrition; (2) nerve disturbance 
which sometimes results in very rapid atrophy ; (3) inflam- 
mation; (4) excessive activity and exhaustion of the tissue 
elements; (5) continuous pressure. 

General atrophy may be caused by lack of nutrition or 
excessive consumption and wastages of the soft tissues, 
especially the fats which are first taken; e.g. in typhoid 
fever in the human, or influenza in the horse. In this sense 
general atrophy is synonymous with emaciation. 

Degenerations and infiltrations are characterized by 
changes in the quality of a tissue; the bulk may or may 
not remain the same. When tissue degenerates, cheaper 
material is deposited in and actually becomes a part of the 
tissue. This is degeneration. When infiltration occurs, the 
lower grade tissue is deposited in the cells and between the 
fibers or other tissue elements. The proper elements may 



72 VETERINARY STUDIES 

then shrink. The affected organ loses in usefulness in either 
case. 

Fatty degeneration is characterized by the formation of 
fatty matter in the tissue elements, and is especially com- 
mon in muscular and glandular tissue. 

Fatty infiltration is characterized by a deposit of fatty 
matter between the tissue elements and later into the tissue 
cells. Either may be caused by (1) deficiency of blood and 
consequent imperfect nutrition; (2) inflammation; (3) high 
fever; (4) poisons, like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, etc. 

Calcareous degeneration and infiltration are marked by de- 
posit of lime salts into or between the tissue elements, and 
may be caused by anything that results in imperfect nutri- 
tion and lessened vitality. These conditions occur more 
frequently in the tissues of older people or animals. The 
muscular coat of the arteries sometimes becomes calcified 
and brittle in old people and may even break under some 
unusual strain. 

There are various other degenerations and infiltrations 
besides these two named; but in each case there occurs the 
deposit of some inferior tissue into or between the proper 
elements of the organ. 

Collapse. — The symptoms are: temperature below nor- 
mal; surface of body cold; respirations very shallow and 
slow; pulse feeble and very slow or very fast. 

Collapse may be the result of (a) a very high fever, 
ih) poison, (c) suppression of secretion or excretion, {d) rup- 
,ture of internal organs, (e) excessive hemorrhages, (/) de- 
composition of the blood. 

Syncope is suspension of heart action. It is more sudden 
and the symptoms are more brief than in collapse. 

Death is permanent arrest of all functions. It begins at 
heart, lungs, or brain. Heart failure (syncope) is very sud- 
den. Lung failure results in suffocation or asphyxia. 
Brain failures develop slow symptoms, stupor being present. 
When death occurs because the blood is altered, the heart 
first ceases action. 



LECTURE XVI 

WOUNDS 

Definition. — A sudden break in the continuity of a tissue^ 
caused by external violence. 

Healing. — All wounds heal by the production of new cells 
and new intercellular substance formed from preexisting 
tissue cells. The embryonic cells change later into mature 
cells like those of the adjacent tissue. Complete union im- 
plies a restoration of circulation and nutrition. This again 
implies new blood vessels for the new tissue. 

Union by primary intention. — The essentials of this 
mode are rapid union and absence of germs and pus. All 
wounds which heal without suppuration heal in this way. 
There is always some new tissue formed, although it may 
not be visible. 

By granulation. — This is observed in the healing of open 
wounds, and consists of the formation of new tissue by the 
multiplication of preexisting cells. This new tissue fills the 
space between the wound margins and replaces the tissue 
that was destroyed. 

Newly formed tissue in open wounds is composed of cap- 
illaries, embyronic connective tissue cells, and leucocytes. 
If the wound is free from germs and the surfaces are kept 
at rest and close together, healing is very rapid and but 
little new tissue needed. Where there is loss of much tissue, 
it may be impossible to bring the surfaces together and a 
great deal of new tissue is needed. Connective tissue cells 
only develop from preexisting connective tissue cells, — 
epithelial from epithelial, bony from bony, etc. 

When wounds are covered with granulations, each little 

73 



74 VETERINARY STUDIES 

elevation contains a loop or network of new blood vessels. 
The white blood corpuscles emigrate through the new blood 
vessels and form part of the pus when this is present. 
Healthy granulations are small, firm, pink in color, and the 
surface is slightly moistened with a colorless fluid. In this 
case the wound heals rapidly and usually leaves a small 
scar. 

Proud flesh is merely a mass of profuse granulations, and 
indicates either a lack of vitality or else external irritation. 
The latter is usually from germs. 

Development of new blood vessels. — This is from vessels 
that previously existed in the injured tissue. The growth 
of new blood vessels and new tissue for union start together 
and continue until enough granulation tissue has been de- 
veloped to fill the wound gap. The new vessels start by 
budding from capillaries near the surface, and are always 
short. These buds project farther and farther and gradu- 
ally change into threads. These threads gradually hollow 
into tubes, beginning at the end near the old capillary. It 
happens frequently that the ends of two neighboring pro- 
jections meet and unite to form an arch. As this becomes 
hollowed out a capillary loop is formed. When this de- 
velopment is complete, then new blood vessels may start 
from this one and perhaps develop another arch. The 
thread-like projections are probably hollowed out by the 
blood current in the parent vessel. 

Granulation tissue is more vascular than normal tissue. 
Useless vessels are finally constricted and then obliter- 
ated. 

Inflammation in wounds is due to foreign material; for 
instance, dead tissue or foreign bodies, but more commonly 
by germs which by multiplication give rise to wound infec- 
tion and inflammation. 

Osseous tissue. — Wounds in bone tissue heal like those 
in other tissues, the wound surface being covered with granu- 
lations. The development of new tissue is from the perios- 
teum and from the marrow at the place of injury. At the 



WOUNDS 75 

end of a few weeks^ the ends are united by a spongy mass 
beneath the periosteum and in the medullary canal. This 
mass gradually becomes organized. This is called a callus 
and later is partly removed. 

Cartilage has very little power of repair. Loss of cartilage 
is generally repaired by fibrous connective tissue. 

Nerve tissue. — After a nerve is cut, the severed portion 
degenerates. New axis cylinders come down from the 
stump and grow through or along old sheaths of the severed 
portion. It is doubtful whether primary union ever takes 
place. Quick return of sensibility does not necessarily im^ply 
restoration of the injured fibers. The newly grown axis 
cylinders receive sheaths which probably grow from nerve 
cells lying within the old sheaths. Whether the new fibers 
ever reach the old terminals depends upon the amount of 
intervening tissue and the density of it. The limit of growth 
is placed at from one to two inches. 

The new tissue. — In certain tissues, extensive injuries 
may be repaired by tissue which completely resembles the 
original. This is true of tendons and bones. Muscular 
tissue seems to have much less ability to repair extensive 
injuries. Scar tissue contracts for a long time after heal- 
ing is complete. The scar is large when there has been 
more granulation tissue than needed or where an extensive 
removal of tissue necessitates a great amount of scar tissue. 
Scar tissue in this case is endowed with low vitality, and is 
poorly nourished. 

How skin recovers a surface. — A wound is not entirely 
healed until it is recovered. This takes place by develop- 
ment of new epithelial cells from those of the skin. These 
new epithelial cells gradually form new skin which grows 
from the margin. It covers the granulations loosely at 
first, but later unites firmly to them. New epithelial cells 
have the power of amoeboid movement. They may become 
detached from the margin and set up a new covering center 
elsewhere on the wound surface. Restoration of the skin 
surfaces, and for that matter the entire healing, is favored 



76 VETERINARY STUDIES 

by surgical cleanliness, and is hindered by irritating medi- 
cines, and by rubbing sponges, etc., over the surface. 

An exception should be noted, viz. that when healing has 
ceased in case of an old sore, with the surface not yet covered 
by skin, healing may sometimes be given a vigorous start by 
a blister. 



LECTURE XVII 

WOVIUDS— Continued 

The most common wounds which affect stock are those 
caused by barbed wires, plows, harrows, etc., and are gener- 
ally large and badly torn. The farmer rarely has to deal 
with a nice clean wound that can unite smoothly and heal 
rapidly. 

Bad treatment. — Nearly every farmer has some special 
preparation which he thinks of great value in the treatment 
of wounds. Most of these preparations are seriously in- 
jurious, and greatly retard healing. Various preparations 
of turpentine, alcohol, vinegar, carbolic acid, irritating oils, 
and even the mineral acids are frequently used in the treat- 
ment of these wounds, and then, because the patient recovers 
in spite of barbarous treatment, people erroneously con- 
clude that the medicine cured. 

Bleeding. — This can usually be checked quite easily. If 
the blood comes from a large number of small vessels, the 
hemorrhage can be checked and finally stopped by means 
of ice, by very cold or very warm water, or the wound may 
be packed with clean cotton or oakum and tightly ban- 
daged. In case a large blood vessel is severed, it may be 
better to draw the end out and tie a strong thread around 
it. The artery may be secured by means of small forceps 
or even with a hook made by bending a pin or piece of wire. 

In some cases hemorrhage can be easily controlled by a 
tight bandage placed above or below the wound. If the 
blood flows in a steady stream, the bandage should be on 
the side farthest from the heart. If it flows in jets, the 
bandage should be tied between the wound and the heart. 

Sewing. — Comparatively few wounds are materially bene- 

77 



78 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



fited by sewing, bandaging, or washing except in profes- 
sional hands. If the wound is made lengthwise of the muscle, 
there may be considerable advantage in holding the sides 
together by sewing. No special form of needle or thread is 
necessary except that both should be clean, and the latter 
should be of reasonable size. A darning needle and ordinary 
white cotton thread or twine will do very w^ell in an emer- 
gency. But if the wound is made across the muscle and 
gapes widely, it is usually unwise to sew, for the sutures will 
cut out in a few days and make the scar much worse than 
if it had been left alone. 

Bandaging. — Occasionally a wound is such that the edges 
can be held together by means of bandages. If this can be 

done, there may be consider- 
able advantage in so doing, 
but these wounds are rare. 
Bandages must be changed 
frequently and the wound 
kept clean. 

Washing. — Few of these 
wounds are benefited by 
washing or other '^home'^ 
treatment. If a wound is 
such that pus can drain 
from it freely and as rapidly 
as formed, there is little to 
be gained by washing. If 
on the contrary there are 
deep recesses or pockets 
from which the pus cannot 
drain, then the wound must 
be so altered that these 
pockets will drain or else they must be washed out ; other- 
wise the pus may burrow deeper. 

Carbolic acid is commonly used so dilute that it is with- 
out effect. When used strong enough to be distinctly an- 
tiseptic, it becomes injurious to the wound surface. If 




Fig. 31. — Badly Treated Wire 
Wound. {M. H. R.) 



WOUNDS 79 

washing is necessary, use warm water containing a trace of 
salt, just enough salt so that it can be tasted. This is 
efficient and not injurious. In any case the wound surface 
must not be rubbed over during the process of washing. 

Dry treatment. — Sometimes quicker and better results 
can be obtained by the use of nonirritating and astringent 
antiseptic powder; for instance, the following: iodoform, 
boracic acid, and tannic acid, in equal parts. This may be 
dusted over the surface once daily to produce an artificial 
scab. If the wound is suppurating freely, it may be ad- 
visable to irrigate its surface freely for fifteen minutes with 
3 per cent creolin, or 3 per cent lysol, or 5 per cent carbolic 
acid in water before applying the powder. Use the powder 
freely. In some cases it is advisable to make a second ap- 
plication of the powder fifteen minutes after the first. 

If the suppuration is checked and the surface scabs over, 
then use the powder only. If free suppuration begins 
again, repeat the antiseptic irrigation, and powder as 
before. 

Maggots. — This trouble can usually be prevented in small 
wounds by smearing the following mixture around the 
border: turpentine 1 part, tar 3 parts, fish oil 2 parts. If 
a wound becomes infested with maggots, use chloroform. 
This may be applied either by spraying or by throwing it in 
small drops from a sponge. 

Suggestions. — Wounds frequently heal more rapidly and 
perfectly in open air than in the stable, because there is 
more ammonia in the air of the stable, and injurious germs 
are more abundant. Healing of some wounds is retarded 
by exercise, and such patients should be kept in the stable. 

Rest from motion for the injured parts is generally favor- 
able for wound healing. 

In dressing a recent wound all dirt and foreign material, 
and usually all clots of blood, should be carefully removed. 
This may be done with a mild antiseptic solution used 
warm; e.g. 3 per cent carbolic acid or 3 per cent lysol. 
Ordinary cotton, preferably surgeon's cotton, will do very 



80 VETERINARY STUDIES 

nicely, but there should be as little rubbing as possible. It is 
frequently better to use a syringe than sponge or cotton. 

The healing wound. — Healing wounds vary greatly in 
appearance. The wound that is called '^ healthy '' or that 
is doing well has been described under Healing by Granu- 
lation. Wounds that are '^ unhealthy '' or not doing well 
may be either pale, or dark with considerable heat, or show 
large soft granulations (proud flesh). When repair has ap- 
parently ceased and there is no progress toward healing, we 
say the wound is indolent. 

For indolent wounds a good blister will frequently start 
active healing. The so-called proud flesh or bad granula- 
tion may be removed from ^^ unhealthy '' wounds by the 
knife or actual cautery. Inflamed wounds should be treated 
with long-continued applications of warm water, or warm 
antiseptic poultices. 

Punctured wounds are especially dangerous on account 
of tetanus and deep formation of pus with absorption of 
septic poison. These deep wounds may be' treated with 
hydrogen peroxide or carbolic acid deeply injected. In 
some cases they may be opened freely and exposed to air, 
which greatly reduces the danger. 



LECTURE XVIII 
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

CONTAGIUM 

Definition. — Living germs which constitute the specific 
and primary cause of certain diseases and which may be 
transmitted from one animal to another. An outbreak of 
disease may be enzootic (local), or epizootic (widely spread). 

Description. — Bacteria are vegetable microorganisms. 
Each individual consists of a single cell. They are of 
almost infinite number of species and varieties, and are 
present in the atmosphere in particles of room dust, in 
drinking water, in the soil, and, in fact, almost everywhere 
in great abundance. 

Size. — They are extremely small, requiring the highest 
powers of the microscope to make them distinctly visible. 
It is estimated that millions may live comfortably in a single 
drop of fluid. An average bacillus is from 25^00" ^^ 2500 0" 
of an inch long. 

Motion. — Some of these little plants have positive mo- 
tility, others have no true motility; many of them have a 
peculiar dancing motion (Brownian motion). 

Nutrition. — Bacteria use for their food the chemical 
elements, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, 
and sulphur. Like higher beings, they vary in their likes 
and dislikes. What is wholesome for one may be very in- 
jurious to another. Each species has its certain conditions 
of moisture, temperature, and chemical reaction which are 
most favorable. 

Reproduction. — These little beings reproduce by fission 
and by spore formation. If the fission is incomplete, they 

G 81 



82 VETERINARY STUDIES 

remain in chains. The spore is the hardy resistant form 
and corresponds imperfectly to seed formation of higher 
plants. It is estimated that one individual may increase 
to 1,176,570 in 10 hours. 

Plagues in history. — Throughout all the pages of history, 
we have records of fearful plagues among men and animals. 
About 1500 years before Christ a great plague of murrain 
swept through Egypt and made a great slaughter of cattle. 
We are told concerning the plague at Athens, 430 B.C., that 
dead men, dead animals, and dead birds lay in piles on the 
streets, and even the temple floors were covered with bodies. 

Plague^s recur at intervals through the history of the city 
of Rome. About 453 B.C. an outbreak, possibly anthrax, 
destroyed nearly one half the population of Rome, as well 
as their cattle, and the outbreak spread extensively through 
what is now Italy. A widespread outbreak of anthrax oc- 
curred in France and Belgium, 591 A.D. This same disease 
is said to have spread all over Europe again about 1750. 
Cattle plague was carried into England in 1745, and the loss 
was very heavy. This outbreak lasted for several years in 
various parts of Europe, and the loss cannot be estimated. 
Tuberculosis has long been prevalent. These are all con- 
tagious diseases and are caused by bacteria. The above 
are but isolated examples of an indefinite number of out- 
breaks of various diseases which have appeared among 
domestic animals. 

How scattered. — Germs of diseases are scattered by a 
very great many agencies ; for instance, the germs of hog 
cholera are disseminated by means of the diseased carcasses, 
hog racks, stock cars, and they may be easily transferred 
by the shoes or clothing of persons who walk through an 
infected yard. Dogs undoubtedly serve to scatter this dis- 
ease over wide areas, and possibly birds. It is possible, also, 
for the germs to be scattered upon particles of dust and 
litter in high winds. Watering troughs, tanks, ponds, and 
sluggish streams are all common sources for spreading in- 
fectious diseases. 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 83 

Development of outbreaks. — It seems to be true of several, 
and possibly so of a great many, diseases, that the germs 
may be present with the animal or his surroundings but 
not virulent enough to produce disease. Under favorable 
conditions and perhaps after passing through the bodies of 
several susceptible animals in succession they may increar^e 
in virulence sufficiently to produce disease. 

Some of the germs producing diseases of domestic animals 

are believed to live for very long periods of time and even 

vegetate outside the animal ^^^^^^^^^^ 
u 5 ui -^L.- • COGGAC&A& 

body, possibly upon or within 

the tissues of plants. Some ^^^ -^ 

germs, especially in the resist- """ BACT&RIACE'A& 

ing or spore stage, may live _ <§PlR|LLAC£rAE' TYP&S 

for very long periods of time, >^^ 

and under very unfavorable ^'^^y^>^^^ 

conditions retain virulence ; for Fig. 32. — General Groups of Bac- 
, ^ , r» . 1 TERiA. Diagrammatic. (M. H. R.) 

example, the spores 01 anthrax. 

Some outbreaks of infectious diseases appear very sud- 
denly, with the most virulent and rapidly fatal cases ap- 
pearing earliest in the outbreak. The outbreak then grad- 
ually loses virulence, the last cases being of a decidedly 
chronic nature, and some of them possibly recovering. This 
is frequently illustrated in hog cholera. It is possible, how- 
ever, that, before the virulent form was noticed, there 
may have been a series of very mild cases, the animals not 
being appreciably sick ; but the germs in passing through 
susceptible bodies greatly increased in virulence until they 
were able to produce a rapidly fatal type of the disease. 

Body entrance. — Germs gain entrance through the res- 
piratory organs with the inspired air; through the digestive 
organs, through cuts or scratches in the skin and mucous 
membranes ; and rarely infection occurs before birth. 

Method of injury. — Germs cause injury and disease in at 
least two different ways : First, by rapid multiplication and 
mechanical presence in inconceivable numbers. As an ex- 
ample of disease caused by germs in this way, at least partly 



84 VETERINARY STUDIES 

by mechanical presence, we have actinomycosis (lumpy 
jaw). Second, germs which by chemical action may pro- 
duce intensely poisonous substances in the blood and body 
tissues. As an example of this we have tetanus and diph- 
theria. 

How disposed of in nature. — Nature disposes of disease 
germs in a variety of ways, principally by oxidation, by the 
devitalizing effect of sunlight, and they are scattered over 
wide areas and enormously diluted by the wind and water. 

Classification. — Germs are classified into general families 
according to form, multiplication, presence or absence of 
sheath, and whether motile or not. There are at least three 
general family types of bacteria : — 

First, Coccacece. — These are spherical. A great many 
of the most common diseases are caused by germs which 
belong to this general family. For instance, erysipelas and 
various types of blood poisoning, abscesses, and sloughing. 

Second, Bacteriacece. — These are short, rod-shaped germs. 
Among the common diseases of live stock which are caused 
by germs belonging to this general family, there ma)^ be 
given as illustrations, tuberculosis, glanders, tetanus (lock- 
jaw), and hemorrhagic septicaemia. 

Third, Spirillacece. — The individuals are rod-shaped, 
curved, or spiral and may be very short or very long. The 
specific cause of Asiatic fever (human) belongs in this 
general group. 

Practical suggestions. — The student should bear clearly 
in mind that bacteria or germs usually require very favor- 
able conditions for existence, and especially for retaining 
disease-producing power. Make conditions unfavorable for 
them by vigorous health, by high resisting power on the 
part of the animal, and by sunshine and ventilation. 

Bear in mind that germs are actual substances, tiny 
particles of living matter, and may be carried about in any 
way that very fine particles of dust may be scattered. 

The beginning of an outbreak may come in two ways: 
first, by recent introduction of germs, e.g. anthrax in north- 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 85 

ern states. Or^ second, an outbreak of infectious disease 
may be caused by increased virulence in case of germs al- 
ready present, but not previously capable of producing 
disease. This increase of virulence may be due to sur- 
rounding conditions especially favorable to germ life. This 
probably occurs, e.g. in diphtheria and pneumonia. 

Apparently it makes great difference in many diseases 
as to the number of germs taken into the body, — hence the 
necessity of sunshine to reduce virulence and destroy germs 
and of ventilation to carry as many of them as possible out 
into the open air. 

Bearing in mind now what has been said of germs, it is 
easy to see how glanders with infection left in feed boxes 
or water pails may be spread from horse to horse; how 
hog cholera with infection, especially in the manure, may be 
easily and rapidly spread; or how lumpy jaw may be spread 
with its germs in the pus scattered from abscesses. 



LECTURE XIX 

CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

DISINFECTION 

Purpose. — In veterinary practice, disinfection is intended 
to check the spread of infectious diseases, and to protect from 
further infection animals which may be already diseased. 

Sources of infection. — In. any process of disinfection it is 
important to know something concerning the nature of the 
infecting germ, and the sources from which it comes. Germs 
of diseases are spread in a great variety of ways; for in- 
stance, with the body fluids of sick animals, by soiled water 
or food, or by any contaminated matter. Air may be con- 
taminated from the skin and lungs of diseased animals. 
The soil may be contaminated by the burial of diseased ani- 
mals or by the deposit of any infectious material upon the 
surface. In any .such case, germs may be washed to ponds, 
sluggish streams, or shallow wells, thus contaminating the 
water. Hides, offal, and even the hair of a diseased animal 
may be a source of spreading disease. 

Must be thorough. — Disinfection is not reliable and should 
not be depended upon unless done most thoroughly. A 
small yard may be disinfected by having straw burned over 
it, or the earth may be removed to a depth of at least six 
inches and replaced with fresh earth. Paved flooring may be 
disinfected by burning over it any inflammable material. 
Cracks should be disinfected by free use of corrosive subli- 
mate solution. Food which may have been contaminated 
should ordinarily be destroyed, but in some cases such 
food may be given to nonsusceptible animals. Drinking 

86 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 87 

places should be disinfected^ also currycombs, brushes, and 
everything of that sort. 

Attendants. — Attendants for sick animals should be very 
careful about their clothing, particularly trousers and shoes. 
It is well to use special overalls and overshoes, which should 
be left at the infected stall or building. 

Dogs, rats, and any of the smaller animals which are liable 
to convey the disease should be guarded against. 

'' How to burn a carcass.''* — Dig a cross-shaped trench 
about 12 inches deep in the center, becoming shallow toward 
the edges; about seven feet long each way. The earth is 
thrown in the angles; two bars of iron are placed across for 
a bridge, and upon them the fuel is placed. The trunk of 
the carcass is placed upon the fuel, then another layer of 
fuel, then the internal organs and limbs of the carcass, and 
finally another layer of wood. The cross-shaped trench 
gives a draft — no matter which way the wind may be 
blowing. 

DISINFECTANTS 

Alcohol. — This is considered unreliable, not strong enough 
in its germ-destroying properties, but useful for certain pur- 
poses, particularly as an aid in disinfecting greasy surfaces. 

Carbolic acid. — Pure carbolic acid is usually seen in the 
form of light-colored crystals, sometimes slightly red. As 
sold in the drug stores it is usually liquefied by the addition 
of 5 to 8 per cent of water. It is soluble in water up to 
about 6 per cent. This is one of the most commonly used 
and most reliable disinfectants. It is objectionable in being 
quite poisonous; but it does not destroy clothing or corrode 
metals like corrosive sublimate. The best antidote is prob- 
ably alcohol for internal poisoning or for external burns. 
Alcohol may be given in large doses for this purpose. For 
disinfection, use a 5 per cent solution. 

Crude carboKc acid was formerly a very valuable disin- 

* Method recommended by Dr. F. Smith. 



88 VETERINARY STUDIES 

fectant, and cheap, but it has fallen into discredit because 
some of that put on the market in later years has been 
robbed of its disinfecting properties in the manufacture of 
various proprietary disinfectants. 

Creolin. — This is supposed to be a combination of crude 
carbolic acid with soap. It is a dark brown, rather thick 
liquid, and makes a milky emulsion with water, used in 5 
per cent solution. 

Formalin. — A very important disinfectant, either as a 
liquid or when vaporized. It is in the market as a 40 per 
cent solution of formaldehyde gas. The odor is very irri- 
tating and disagreeable, resembling somewhat chlorine. 
Formalin is apparently more active in the presence of 
moisture. For use in vapor form, at least 20 ounces per 
1000 cubic feet should be introduced rapidly into a tight 
room. Glycerine or borax should be added in the retort. 

Formalin may be vaporized very satisfactorily by per- 
manganate of potash in powder or fine crystals. Use 8 
ounces of permanganate and 20 ounces formalin for each 
1000 cubic feet of air when the inside temperature is 60 de- 
grees F. or above. Use one fourth to one half more of the 
disinfectants for lower temperatures. A large flaring tin 
pail is used for each such mixture, and the permanganate 
should be put in first. 

Fire. — The most reliable disinfectant, and the one that 
should be invariably used where an article may be destroyed. 

Moist heat. — More active and reliable than dry heat at 
same temperature. Boiling for an hour is probably suffi- 
cient to destroy any known disease-producing germs. 

Corrosive sublimate. — This is sold in the form of white 
crystals or powder. It dissolves in about 16 parts of water, 
and its solubility can be increased by muratic acid or iodide 
of potash. It is disinfectant in the proportion of 1 to 2000, 
about 3 J grains to a pint of water, and in even more dilute 
solution. A convenient solution can be made by dissolv- 
ing it in alcohol, 1 to 8, then a teaspoonful of this to a quart 
of water gives a 1 to 2000 solution. Corrosive sublimate is 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 89 

dangerously poisonous; it coagulates albumin^ and corrodes 
and destroys metals. 

Sulphur is probably not as efficient as is generally sup- 
posed. If a very large quantity of sulphur is used, after 
the surfaces to be disinfected have been moistened by steam 
or otherwise and doors and windows kept tightly closed for 
a long period of time, then it seems to have decided germ- 
destroying properties. There is needed about 10 pounds 
per 1000 cubic feet of air. This may be easily burned by 
the addition of about three or four ounces of alcohol, the 
whole being placed in an iron kettle, and that in a tub of 
boiling water, partly for safety and partly for moisture. 

Sunshine. — Destroys germs. Whenever sufficient time 
may be had, infected clothing or any article to be disin- 
fected, especially where the infection is on the surface, can 
be rendered safe by long exposure to sunshine. 



LECTURE XX 
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

HEREDITY 

Definition. — The great law of inheritance that ^^ Hke 
tends to produce Hke.'' This tendency may apply to any 
peculiarity. Heredity may appear as a factor in the cause 
of disease when actual disease germs are transmitted, which 
is rare, or when a local weakness or general susceptibility 
appears, which is favorable to the development of disease. 
Statistics are meager, but essential facts are very plain as 
to the relation of heredity to many diseases. 

Theory. — The modern idea of heredity in relation to dis- 
ease is that the thing actually inherited is usually only a tend- 
ency or a lessened resistance. This may refer to the white 
corpuscles and serum of the blood as well as to the muscle 
and tendon or bone cells. This theory of lessened resistance 
applies to such conditions as spavins, ringbones, sidebones, 
roaring, and internal diseases alike. Under favorable con- 
ditions the actual development of disease may not occur. 
A stallion with certain defects of the eyes is apt to sire 
colts with bad eyes. Mares with curby or spavined hocks 
are equally apt to raise colts with bad hocks. In rare cases 
the young is born with the actual disease present. 

In-and-in breeding. — This tends in some cases toward 
decrease of physical vigor, infertility, tendency to abortion, 
and various other diseases, especially when long continued 
and with unwise mating. 

AIR 

Air is a very frequent source of disease. Its composition 
in a general way is: oxygen 1-5, nitrogen, 4-5; more accu- 

90 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE 91 

rately; oxygen 20.97 per cent, nitrogen 79 per cent, and 
carbon dioxide gas (CO 2) .03 per cent. 

Impurities in air are taken care of by nature through 
diffusion, oxidation, sunhght, and plant hfe activity. Com- 
mon impurities in air are carbonic gas, ammonia, germs of 
very many different kinds; scales and debris of epithelium, 
hair, sputum, dried manure, dried pus, and various matters 
from sewer pipes and marshy grounds. 

Relation to disease. — Diseases related to impure air are 
many and serious ; e.g. total mortality among French cavalry 
horses was formerly as high as 18 to 20 per cent, but was 
reduced by ventilation and better sanitary conditions to 7 
per cent. Farcy in the English cavalry used to be exceed- 
ingly common, but is now rare. In 1857 there was a 
serious outbreak of influenza that could not be checked until 
certain stables were cleaned and ventilated. 

Horses' lungs have about 289 square feet of air-absorbing 
surface or five times the skin area. They may contain at 
one time 1.5 feet of air. Horses at rest may give off 6.5 
to 7.5 cubic feet of CO2 every hour. 

Air begins to get foul when oxygen is reduced to 20.6 per 
cent, or taking another means of estimating, air generally 
begins to be foul when CO2 goes above .05 per cent; but is 
not necessarily very harmful. 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is not poisonous in small quantities 
of itself, but significant because of the poisonous inorganic 
impurities with which it may be associated. Common 
statements that CO2 at 1 per cent is very poisonous or fatal 
are nonsense. See Minn. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 98. When 
present in very great excess, it supplants oxygen in blood, 
causes paralysis of heart, and overwork, then failure, of the 
lungs. 

Hydrogen sulphide may also be present in the air. Four 
tenths (.4 per cent) per cent is said to be fatal to horses, 
causing diarrhea and extreme weakness. 

Nitrogen is nearly negative in effect. It dilutes oxygen 
and CO2. 



92 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Ammonia in air must also be regarded as an impurity 
so far as animal life is concerned, mainly because of the 
organic matters with which it associates. 

Practical application. — A very practical lesson and a 
very • obvious one is to breed from sound and vigorous 
stock. Farmers do unwisely when they patronize unsound 
and inferior sires, simply because the cost of service is low. 
The Minnesota Stallion Law specifies the following diseases 
as bars for registration on the ground that the diseases are 
transmissible either directly or indirectly by heredity: 
cataract, amaurosis, laryngeal hemiplegia (roaring or 
whistling), chorea (St. Vitus' dance, crampiness, shivering, 
springhalt), bone spavin, ringbone, sidebone, and curb 
when accompanied by curby hock. 

Farmers should not patronize stallions affected with any 
of these conditions, nor should they be misled into pur- 
chasing such stallions. The present outlook is that such 
stallions will be barred from public service in a large num- 
ber of states within a few years. It should be borne in 
mind that a fat animal is not necessarily sound or healthy. 
Domestic animals may be and frequently are in show con- 
dition and yet badly diseased. 

The spread of tuberculosis in a stable is a good illustra- 
tion of transmission of disease due to bad air conditions. 
With an infectious case of tuberculosis already in the herd, 
tuberculosis spreads much more rapidly in unventilated 
stables than in well-ventilated stables. 

Ventilation, therefore, is very important and should be 
thorough. It accomplishes two purposes: admits oxygen, 
dilutes and removes impurities. Good ventilation implies 
rapid change in air without direct draughts upon confined 
animals. Each mature cow or horse should have about 35 
square feet of floor space and at least 1000 cubic feet of air 
— better 1500, and this should be renewed frequently (see 
Lecture on Ventilation). 

Sunshine is equally important, for sunshine is nature's 
universal disinfectant, killing more or less rapidly germs of 
disease. 



LECTURE XXI 
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 

VENTILATION 

Purposes. — There are two purposes in ventilation^ viz. 
getting fresh air with its oxygen into a stable, and getting 
impurities out, and these are equally important. 

Impurities. — The common impurities of air are disease 
germs and their products ; carbon dioxide gas, various 
volatile matters from the lungs, together with the various 
excretions and the products which result from their chemical 
decompositions. 

Stable air. — One good authority (F. Smith) reports an 
analyses of air for European stables. The average of 28 
analysis gave .14 per cent carbonic gas (CO2). In another 
series of 28 analyses he found an average of .21 per cent. A 
French authority found .7 per cent CO2 in a military stable. 
For a normal outside air we may take about .03 per cent 
CO2. 

In some of our own work (Reynolds and Lipp) with a 
steer closely confined in an especially prepared tight stall 
we obtained the following record of CO^ percentages after 
varying periods of confinement and with very accurate 
work. After 6 hours, .94 per cent; after 12 hours, .71 
per cent; average after two 24-hour periods, 1.03 per cent; 
after 48 hours, .68 per cent. The animal was a young 
steer weighing about 500 pounds, and was confined in a 
stall containing 784 cubic feet of air. 

Another steer 200 pounds heavier in the same series of 
experiments gave for an average of three 24-hour periods, 
1.09 per cent; at 42 hours, .98 per cent. It may be inter- 

93 



94 VETERINARY STUDIES 

esting for the student to note the decrease of CO2 rather 
than an increase, which would usually be expected. This 
occurred many times in our experimental work and is quite 
easily explained on chemical grounds. 

Necessity of ventilation. — To illustrate the effect of poor 
sanitary conditions, particularly lack of ventilation, it is 
only necessary to call attention to the common experience 
of moving an animal affected with a chronic type of glanders 
or tuberculosis from a well-lighted and well-ventilated stable 
to one where the conditions are the opposite. Under the 
latter conditions there is rapid development of a disease 
which had been mild. 

Sick animals especially need free ventilation. This is 
particularly true in certain diseases, e.g. tetanus and dis- 
eases of the lungs. 

A moderately warm barn in a cold climate is not objec- 
tionable, providing sanitary conditions, such as abundant 
air, sunlight, good food, and water, are provided. But mak- 
ing a barn warm and tight may very easily establish an 
ideal place for the propagation of germs and the spread of 
disease. 

Carbonic gas (CO2) can no longer be considered a reliable 
index of an atmosphere's injurious quality. In fact our 
work has shown it to be a very unreliable guide in this 
respect. But it is a very convenient guide as to ventilation 
accomplished. 

Unventilated stable air. — Writers and teachers on the 
subject of hygiene are agreed that unventilated air is harm- 
ful. The student may safely take their statements as cor- 
rect in a general way, but may just as safely doubt the 
usual explanation. 

Work done at the Minnesota Experiment Station seems 
to demonstrate quite conclusively that the accepted ex- 
planations are incorrect; that any probable increase of 
CO2 or any probable decrease of oxygen are not especially 
important. This work seems to show that the injury 
comes from entirely different factors. ' 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 95 

The Minnesota Station has had a number of different 
animals continue apparently in good health when confined 
for very considerable periods in very high percentages of 
CO2. In one case a steer made good gains, was bright and 
active, and showed no important physiological disturbances 
when confined in air containing CO27 ranging as high as 
2.67 per cent, or nearly 90 times the average for outside air. 

Experimental work shows that decrease of oxygen does 
not lessen the amount absorbed by the animal until we 
reach the very low level of about 13 per cent, 20.97 per 
cent being taken as a normal. But 13 volumes per cent is 
much lower than would be found in any stable. 

Excretion of CO2 may be checked and difficult respiration 
occur in case of very great excess of this gas. It has 
been found by other experimenters that when the air con- 
tains from 3 to 4 volumes per cent of CO2 the excretion of 
gas may be checked 50 per cent, but without harmful effect 
that could be detected. The excretion of CO2 is practically 
independent of percentage of oxygen in the air. One very 
good authority (Landois) tells us that tissue metabolism is 
not disturbed by variation of oxygen within a range between 
10.5 to 87 per cent. Below 10.5 percentage of oxygen 
there were marked physiological disturbances, but this is 
far below any probable stable percentage. 

There does not appear any good reason for doubting the 
importance of stable ventilation. It is equally plain, how- 
ever, that the injurious effects of unventilated air in com- 
mon stables does not come from high CO2 or low oxygen 
percentages, and that we must seek the explanation in other 
directions. Accumulation of harmful germs may give a 
portion of the explanation. 

Natural forces. — The factors that operate in natural ven- 
tilation are : — 

First. The force of the wind. 

Second. Weight of air, as varied by its temperature. 

Third. Diffusion of gases in obedience to a natural law. 

Wind. — The force of the wind is probably the most im- 



96 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



portant one of these factors, and must always be taken 
into consideration in planning ventilation or in mathe- 
matical estimates of the amount of air needed. It is, of 
course, irregular, but variations can be made in the ventilat- 
ing facilities to compensate for this. A fundamental point 





Fig. 33. — Ventilation. {Paige.) 

Outlet with too many angles. Cow receiving inlet air from over a manure 

pile. 

in using this factor is to see that the incoming air does not 
pass over or through any contaminating source, e.g. over 
a manure pile, and it is very important that the general 
plan of construction should be well considered. 

Temperature and weight. — The second factor, difference 
in weight between the lighter warm and heavier cold air, 
is not so important in natural as in artificial ventilation, 
and yet it is a factor of considerable importance. The heat 
which warms the air in the lower levels is that which comes 
from the bodies of the confined animals, as it is radiated 
from the surface or warmed in passing through the 
lungs. 

Diffusion of gases. — Carbonic gas is considerably heavier 
than air, and the lower levels usually contain a slightly 
higher percentage than the higher ones in a stable, but the 
difference is not so great as one would suppose, on account 
of the diffusion which takes place in response to the law 
of diffusion of gases — which operates independently of 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 



97 



relative weights. This force is so strong in its action that 
some diffusion takes place through unpainted lumber and 
through ordinary brick, but to a very slight extent if at all 
through painted surfaces or paper. 

AIR CURRENTS 

An entering current of air has the effect of inducing other 
currents within the stable, the induced current setting in at 
right angles to the inlet current. 

With windows wide open to windward, openings on the 





Fig. 34. 
Air Currents. 



•Ventilation. 



{Paige.) 
Manger front inlet. 



other side of the stable being closed, and with ridge ven- 
tilation, it is found* that the current of air rushes in, 
strikes the floor at a variable distance after spreading out 
somewhat, then rises and most of it passes out at the ridge. 
A current decreases very rapidly in velocity after the first 
five or six feet from the inlet. The atmosphere immediately 
under the inlet is but moderately disturbed. 

When opposite windows are open, the air comes in from 
the windward side, strikes the ground, rises again, and a 
considerable portion passes directly out at the opposite 
side. But a sudden change in the outside currents may 
temporarily reverse this series. 

With the windward window half open, the window on 



* Paige 



98 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



the lee side being open, the current passes directly through 
the stable without mixing well with the air inside. 

When the windows are all closed, and a door open, then 
the ridge gives a fairly regular outlet ventilation. The 
exact movement of the air within the stable would be 
varied, of course, by stall partitions and other obstructions. 
A strong wind passing over a stable provided with ven- 
tilating shaft may have an outward suction effect, especially 
if some provision is made to insure this result. This may 
be accomplished by putting a flange around the upper 
opening so as to direct the outside current of air upward 
as it strikes the end of the outlet shaft. 

Outlets. — In cases where suitable outlets are provided 
above, and the conditions are favorable, warmed air passes 
upward and out of the room or building ; but if such outlets 
are not provided, then of course the heated air merely rises 
to the ceiling, cools, spreads out and descends, and no pure 
air can come in to take its place. If the outlets are too 
high, the effects are practically the same as though there 

were no outlets at all, for 
the air becomes cool be- 
fore it escapes, and falls 
again. 

Wing describes a form 
of cupola ventilation 
which has been found 
quite satisfactory in pro- 
viding air outlet for some 
barns (see Fig. 35). This 
cupola outlet seems always 
in operation. There is no chance for wind to blow in and 
force strong down drafts. When in working order, it serves 
always as an outlet. It is easily closed by a rope from the 
ground floor. 

This cupola ventilator consists of a common cupola with 
doors on two opposite sides hinged above. 

Connected with these doors, S, 0, is a Hght board B, cut 




Fig. 35. — Cupola Ventilation. 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 99 

in the middle and hinged. When this board is straight, it 
holds one or both doors partly open. If the wind blows 
against one side, that door closes and the lee side window 
opens. To close both doors pull down on the rope R. 

Amount of ventilation needed. — The horse passes 45 cubic 
feet of air through the lungs per hour. This, then, would 
be the amount which the average horse would use if he were 
out in the open where the supply is inexhaustible. It is 
impossible to have the air of any occupied stable as pure 
as the outside atmosphere. The purpose of ventilation is 
to come as near to this point as may be feasible. 

It has been estimated that the air should not be changed 
more than six times per hour in cool weather, on account 
of drafts which more frequent change would produce, and 
the loss of animal heat. 

Air passing at the rate of 3 miles per hour, which is 
barely perceptible, through an opening 1 foot square, ad- 
mits 15,840 cubic feet per hour. A shaft 2 feet square ad- 
mitting a current of air moving at the average rate of 3 
miles per hour is estimated to provide sufficient ventilation 
for 20 cows. 



LECTURE XXII 

CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 

VENTILATION — Continued 

Stable Construction 

Space needed. — A large cubic space per animal is im- 
portant, but this does not lessen the necessity for ventila- 
tion. The atmosphere in a large stable with a given num- 
ber of animals may become just as foul as a smaller stable 
with the same number of animals, the only difference being 
in the length of time required to reach this condition. The 
chief value in a large amount of space is that it gives the 
possibility of admitting a sufficient amount of air without 
such severe drafts as would necessarily be the result of 
admitting the same amount of air per hour into a smaller 
stable. 

Location. — In order that a stable may be well lighted and 
well ventilated it is necessary to have considerable care in 
selecting the location and planning the proportions of the 
buildiag. One of the most desirable forms is that of a main 
part standing east and west and used in a general way for 
storing purposes, with one or two '' ells " at right angles to 
this on the south. This arrangement makes possible a very 
satisfactory and well-protected yard on the south side, and 
gives an even Kghting to the various portions of the '' ells " 
in which the animals are kept. It will be readily seen that 
when a stable extends east and west, and is wide enough 
for two rows of stalls, the animals on the north side do not 
get much light, for the general lighting of their portion of 
the stable is poor. 

100 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 



101 



Width. — A stable to be capable of the best ventilation 
should not be over 25 to 30 feet in width; and the lower 
the better within limits, when one is depending on natural 
conditions. 

Windows. — In order to secure 
suitable ventilation in a building 
of this kind two sets of windows 
should be provided, at least one 
set on each side; and better, 
two sets on each side. Doors 
and windows should be opposite, 
i.e. door opposite door and win- 
dow opposite window wherever 

practicable. ^^«' 36. -Ventilation, 

T, , • i 1 • 1 1- Air duct obstructed by cob- 

It can be stated m a general webs and dust. 




way that where one is depending 



2. stationary outlet cowl to 
utilize the force of the wind for 
upon natural ventilation, and producing upward suction, and to 

the air is brought in cold, the p—* ^own draft. 

inlet should be low and the outlet high; but this does 

not imply that the stable need be very high. 

Shafts and tubes. — In considering ventilation by shafts 
and tubes, it should be remembered that circular, straight 
tubes are preferable, and as for outlets, the shorter the 
better. It is estimated that a right-angle bend in an outlet 
diminishes the velocity of the outgoing air about one half. 
Where it is absolutely necessary that an outlet tube should 
change its course, it should be done in a curve or slight 
bend rather than by a right-angle bend. All parts of such 
shafts and tubes should be accessible for cleaning purposes, 
as it is no uncommon thing for them to become obstructed 
b}^ cobw^ebs and dust so as to be practically useless. In a 
general way the outlet tube, if near an outside wall, should 
be placed on the south side of the building, so as to econo- 
mize the heat of the sun in rendering it more effective. 
Central outlet tubes are generally more efficient, because they 
cool less the column of air. 

Several small inlets are always better than one or two 



102 



VETERINARY STUDIES 




large ones, as they admit the same volume of air, and give 
it better distribution, without direct currents. 

Sheringham valve. — The Sheringham valve is simple and 
efficient for a stable of suitable construction. This system 

consists essentially 
of windows hinged 
at the bottom and 
guarded at the 
sides so as to make 
troughs as the win- 
dows open inward. 
This gives the air 
an upward current, 
passing over the 
backs of the ani- 
mals and settling 
down without di- 
rect current. There 
Seen from should preferably 
be two sets of win- 
dows on each side, the lower windows being generally used 
for inlets on the windward side, and the higher windows for 
the outlets on the leeward side. This affords a very simple, 
inexpensive, and easily manipulated method of ventilation, 
and may be combined with ventilating shafts. Outlet 
ventilating shafts should have openings near the ceiling, 
and also close to the floor, so that their use can be regulated 
according to season and temperature. The upper openings 
of the shaft being used in hot weather, and the lower open- 
ings in cold weather. 

There should be a number of medium-sized or even small 
windows in this system rather than a few large ones. The 
same amount of air can be allowed to enter through the 
small openings without direct draft, and with much better 
distribution. 



Fig. 37. — Ventilation 



1. Sheringham window in section. 

2. Sheringham window, opening inward, 
outside. 



LECTURE XXIII 

CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 

FOOD 

Food may be a factor in animal disease when excessive 
in amount, insufficient, too concentrated, too coarse, bulky, 
and innutritions for the animal that receives it; poor in 
quality; when given in a poorly balanced ration or at ir- 
regular or improper intervals; when given a very tired or 
hot animal; when carrying vegetable or animal parasites; 
or when suddenly changed, e.g. poor to rich pasture; and 
iN^hen poisonous. 

Excessive amount. — Common tendency to overfeed re- 
sults in azoturia, heaves, colic, etc., among horses; milk 
fever, etc., among cows, and favors the development of all 
febrile diseases. Only a certain amount can be absorbed 
or used; the remainder causes trouble. 

Deficiency predisposes to all diseases that are favored by 
a lessened vitality. Glanders and similar diseases are es- 
pecially apt to occur or to increase in severity among horses 
that are poorly fed. Deficiency in food mineral matters 
predisposes toward certain diseases of bone. Deficiency of 
albumin results in loss of energy and strength, and animals 
so fed are apt to be languid and weak. 

Coarse, bulky, and innutritious food may cause colic, in- 
digestion, heaves, and impactions; especially apt to cause 
trouble with animals with small stomachs, e.g. horse. 

Poor quality, e.g. hay cut too ripe or rained on after cut, 
light oats, etc. Objections same as deficiency, also favors 
colic, impactions, and anaemia. 

A food may be poorly balanced and dangerous though very 

103 



104 VETERINARY STUDIES 

nutritious; e.g. beans, wheat, oil meal, and cotton-seed meal 
contain alone too much protein and not enough ash, fat, and 
carbohydrates. When fed in the unbalanced ration, such 
excess of protein may cause febrile disturbances, diarrhea, 
congestion of the liver, azoturia, and milk fever. A similar 
excess of carbohydrates or fats may cause an injurious de- 
position of fat under the skin ; into and between the fibers 
of voluntary muscles, or in the heart and liver. Excess of 
fats causes diarrhea and checks absorption. 

Faulty intervals interfere with digestion and thrift, and 
may cause such disorders as colic and impaction. Cows 
may be fed at longer intervals than horses ; but both should 
be fed regularly. A horse that goes a long time without 
food and then gets abundance is apt to have colic. 

Vegetable parasites, like bunt, smut, rust, ergot, and mil- 
dew, may cause abortions, diabetes, anaemia, and putrid sore 
throat. 

Animal parasites infest several foods; lessen their food 
value and cause skin troubles. 

Sudden changes, from poor to rich pastures, favor anthrax, 
hoven, impaction, and black leg. 

Class differences. — Some animals may eat with impunity 
what others cannot. Rich cereals may indirectly cause^ 
laminitis in horse, — not in cow. Pigs can eat acorns 
freely, but they are injurious to other animals. 



WATER 

Water may be a factor in animal disease when excessive 
in amount or deficient ; when containing low forms of vege- 
table life ; when containing low forms of animal life ; when 
it has received sewage matter; when very hard, e.g. con- 
taining much calcium and magnesium salts; when given at 
improper intervals or soon after eating, or when given in 
large quantities to a very hot or tired horse. 

Excessive amount of water lessens the digestibility of 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 105 

foods, causes an increased tissue waste, and favors indiges- 
tion. 

Deficient water supply may cause impactions in cattle and 
lessen the excretions from skin and kidneys in horses. 
Horses need about 2 pounds and cows giving milk about 4 
pounds of water per pound of dry food; the amount vary- 
ing according to diet and condition of the atmosphere. 
Cows need much more than horses in proportion to weight 
and feed, and can be usually trusted to drink at their own 
pleasure. Horses will frequently drink too much, especially 
when tired or hot. 

Vegetable parasites frequently contaminate drinking water, 
and water may serve as a source of transmission for many 
germ diseases; e.g. anthrax, foot and mouth disease, hog 
cholera, and glanders. 

Animal parasites often contaminate the water supply, 
which thus serve to spread parasitic diseases; e.g. intestinal 
parasites. 

Sewage matter may get into drinking water from various 
sources and cause abortions and poison the system in many 
ways that may result in different diseases. 

Hard water may contain much calcium, magnesium, etc., 
and cause indigestion, unthrifty conditions, and perhaps 
calculi. 

Intervals may be wrong. Horses should be watered regu- 
larly and at as short intervals as convenient. They should 
not be given large quantities of water sooner than one hour 
after eating grain. Much cold water interferes with diges- 
tion, and when given to a very hot or tired horse may result 
in founder or indigestion. 

Practical application. — With this lesson in mind the 
student should hereafter be on the watch for milk fever 
cases to see if the cow has not been in good condition and 
rather heavily fed for a cow not milking, and lacking in 
exercise. 

He should be on the watch for azoturia (see page 207) 
and learn whether the horse has not been idle and full fed 



106 VETERINARY STUDIES 

during the day or so prior to illness. Note also whether 
before this idle period there had not been a period of regu- 
lar work on full feed. 

He should be on the watch for cases of heaves among 
horses and if such horses have not been greedy eaters and 
heavily fed with dusty hay or other bulky food. 

Students should be on the lookout for putrid sore throat 
(infectious cerebro-spinal meningitis) in horses and see if 
such horses have not been eating some spoiled, e.g. moldy, 
corn. 

It will be interesting for the student to be on the look- 
out for an outbreak of hog cholera in a herd that had access 
to a small pond or very sluggish stream and see if there is 
not unusually heavy losses in such cases. 



LECTURE XXIV 
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 

PARASITISM 

Parasitism may be temporary or permanent, external or 
internal. 

Parasites of domestic animals cause greater losses than 
is generally realized. Every stockman should be informed 
concerning the most common and serious parasites. He 
should be especially well informed concerning sheep parasites. 

Temporary when only a portion of the parasite's life his- 
tory is mth one host. 

Permanent when its whole life history is with the same 
host. 

External or internal, i.e. affecting the body surface or 
affecting the internal organs. 

General classes. — In studying diseases of domestic ani- 
mals, we deal mainly with two general classes: worms and 
arthropodes. 

Worms. — Invertebrates with soft contractile bodies, 
either composed of similar rings or nonarticulated ; excretory 
organs in pairs opening externally. Members of this group 
affect many of the internal organs and superficial parts as 
well. 

Arthropodes. — Invertebrates, limbs jointed, bodies com- 
posed of dissimilar rings. In this group also we find both 
external and internal parasites. 

Sources and causes of parasitic diseases. — Parasites may 
be received into the digestive apparatus with food or drink; 
they may gain entrance through the respiratory tract, 

107 



108 VETERINARY STUDIES 

through the broken skin, or there may be external infection 
by contact. 

Predisposing causes. — Species of host; age of host; con- 
dition of host; season of year and climate. Most animal 
parasites are enormously prolific, but very many eggs and 
immature forms are destroyed. Others never reach their 
proper host. Female louse may become ancestor of 10,000 
lice in eight weeks; female itch mite may be ancestor of 
1,000,000 in three months, or a certain tapeworm will fur- 
nish 150,000,000 eggs in one year. 

How nourished. — Parasites often live on the exudate or 
excretion which results from their presence. Some have 
mouth and digestive organs; e.g. roundworms of the in- 
testines. Others receive their nourishment by surface ab- 
sorption or osmosis; e.g. tapeworms. 

Effect on health of host depends on the organ or organs 
invaded; the rapidity of multiplication; the amount of 
nutrition used by parasite, and amount of irritation caused. 

Intestinal parasites cause trouble by obstruction; by irri- 
tating and abstracting blood from the mucous membrane; 
by mechanical irritation, and by using nutrition. Hence 
we have symptoms of indigestion, colic, and unthrift. 

Liver parasites cause jaundice and general anaemia. 

Lung and bronchial parasites cause bronchitis or pneu- 
monia. 

Parasites in the blood vessels cause disease of the vessel 
walls, and may indirectly cause obstructions and colic. 

Parasites in the brain are more rare and usually fatal. 

Parasites in muscular tissue may cause little disturbance 
to the animal host, but be very serious to human health; 
e.g. pig measles, trichina, actinomycosis (lumpy jaw). 

General prevention. — Parasitism would be impossible if 
everything that comes in contact with the animal body 
were free from parasites. Saddles, harness, blankets, posts, 
and fences are the usual agents which spread Texas itch or 
mange among horses ; round intestinal worms generally gain 
entrance in the egg or immature form, with the water drank. 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 109 

Ponds, wells which receive surface drainage, sluggish streams 
and marshes, should therefore be regarded with suspicion. 
Sound animals should not be allowed in sheds, yards, or 
barns where animals diseased by external parasites, like lice 
or scab mites, have been, until such structures have been 
disinfected. Dogs are dangerous factors in sheep pastures, 
because of the tapeworms which they furnish to sheep. 
Intestinal worms which appear in the manure of horses 
should be destroyed with boiling water, — not merely 
crushed and thrown away. 

General treatment. — Medical treatment must be such as 
will destroy or remove the parasites. Medicines may aid us 
in removing parasites by suffocating them, e.g. as with oils; 
or by poisoning the parasites; or by caustic or irritating 
chemical effect on the bodies of the parasites. Many para- 
sites disappear by means of their own activity and habits; 
e.g. ticks, bots in horses, grubs in backs of cattle, and 
grubs in the nasal passages and head cavities of sheep. It 
is well to remember also that many parasites can resist 
stronger medicines than the organs or tissues they invade; 
e.g. bots in the house's stomach. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 

Most serious are the following: itch, mange, and sheep 
scab (due to mites), lice, ticks, flies, and ringworms. 

Mite diseases (acariasis) . — The various forms of itch or 
mange in horses, cattle, and hogs; scab in sheep; scabies in 
cats and dogs are all similar in cause, contagiousness, pre- 
vention, damage done, and in treatment. These diseases 
are caused by minute animal parasites. See Horse Mange, 
Lecture XXVI. 

Causes. — Three types of mites, or acari, affect man and 
the lower animals, all very small : (a) sarcoptes, (6) psorop- 
tes, (c) symbiotes. Each species of animal seems to have 
its own species of each of these varieties of mites. 



110 



VETERINARY STUDIES 




Fig. 38. — Mange Mite. 

The cause of one form of 
horse mange. Psoroptes com- 
munis equi. 



The horse does not take mange from cattle or scab from 
sheep, and so it is with other animals. 

Sarcoptes burrow channels and live in or beneath the skin. 

The eggs are laid and young 
hatched in these channels. 

Psoroptes live on skin surface. 
They can move around on the 
surface and spread rapidly. 

Symhiotes affect regions near 
the feet and move about very 
little. 

Diagnosis of mite disease is 
made on the condition of the skin, 
which becomes dry and wrinkled 
or leathery, with hairs partly gone ; 
intense itching and the mites may 
be found among scales and roots of hairs, by standing the 
patient in the hot sun on the south side of a building, or 
by scraping off some of the diseased skin on 
a piece of black cloth and laying this in 
the hot sun. The mites may then be seen 
with a lens. 

To find the sarcoptes, it is necessary to 
scrape deeply. 

General treatment. — For mite diseases 
the treatment is essentially the same for 
all animals. Scrubbing brush, with soap 
and warm water, is a great help, and then 
some application to kill the mites. Sheep 
are dipped, larger animals are usually 
bathed. Shearing of sheep is almost 
necessary to satisfactory treatment. Clipping larger ani- 
mals is quite an aid. Treatment must be thorough and 
directions followed. Sheep must go under, head and all. 
(See Mange and Sheep Scab, pages 112 and 119.) 

General prevention of all forms of acariasis is merely the 
prevention of a skin infection. Generous feeding is a good 




Fig. 39. — Cattle 
Louse. Female. 

H aem,atopinus 
eurystemus. 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES 111 

prevention for many of the parasitic diseases, because it 
does not allow animals like colts and calves to become thin 
and weak, and thus easy subjects for parasitic invasion. 
Tonics are frequently valuable to build up strength and 
increase the resisting powers. 



DISEASES — PARASITIC 

LECTURE XXV 
SHEEP SCAB 

Sheep scab is the result of irritation caused by little ani- 
mal parasites as they burrow tunnels into the skin or punc- 
ture it from the surface. There are three types of these 
mites and three types of the disease which they cause. 
One variety of these mites produces body scab, another 
produces head scab, and a third produces foot scab. Body 
scab is by far the most common ^ndmost serious economically. 

BODY SCAB 

General history. — Body scab is caused by mites which 
have free power of movement (Psoroptes). This is the 
most common and serious type of sheep scab, because it 
spreads most rapidly over the individual body, and also 
spreads most rapidly through the flock. 

This disease appears insidiously, and is liable to become 
quite serious before being noticed by the owner. The para- 
sites which cause this type of the disease do not tunnel into 
the skin, but they c^use intense irritation by reason of their 
presence and mode of life beneath the scabs. The owner 
will usually remember, after he has become aware that body 
scab exists in his flock, that his sheep have seemed uneasy 
and some of them have been rubbing and biting themselves 
occasionally for some time. 

The parasites live beneath the crusts after the disease is 
well under way, and constantly migrate outward, while the 
skin slowly heals in the center. The fleece of scabby sheep 

112 



SHEEP SCAB 113 

is usually rough, the wool is matted in places and easily 
rubbed off. The parasites which cause this form of the 
disease confine their work almost exclusively to parts of 
the body where the wool is long and thick. 

How spread. — This form of the disease spreads rapidly 
through the flock; partly because of the location of parasites 
upon the body of the sheep, and partly because of the freely 
moving habits of the parasites. As a rule, the disease spreads 
more rapidly in autumn and winter, because the wool is 
then long and thick, furnishing favorable conditions for the 
parasites, and because the sheep are kept in closer contact 
at these seasons. The disease makes more rapid progress 
and is much more fatal with the weaker sheep. These para- 
sites may be transferred from one sheep to another in a 
great variety of ways; for instance, tags of wool may be 
rubbed off and dropped almost anywhere. Diseased sheep 
infect posts and fences by rubbing against them, and the 
parasites escape from one sheep to another while the sheep 
are in close contact in yards and sheds. 

These parasites may revive and become infectious after a 
short exposure to severe cold weather, but are soon de- 
stroyed by alternating changes of heat and cold. They may 
live three to four weeks, at ordinary temperatures and 
under ordinary conditions, around stables and sheds. Some 
authorities say they do not live longer than two or three 
weeks apart from the sheep's body, but it is certainly wise 
to extend this period to three or four weeks for safety. 

FOOT SCAB 

The disease caused by these mites (Symbiotes). appears on 
the feet and limbs. The diseased area extends very slowly, 
but may eventually reach the body. This form of scab 
spreads very slowly from one animal to another, and is 
therefore much less serious than body scab. Sheep having 
this disease are apt to be almost constantly stamping and 
pawing. 



114 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Local treatment. — Any of the sheep dips recommended 
for body scab are effective for this form of the disease. A 
10 per cent solution of the creohn is simple, safe, and easily 
applied. 

Any dip or ointment that will kill the parasites is suffi- 
cient early in the disease, but it may be necessary in old 
cases to soften the scabs by a little oil or a thorough scrub- 
bing with brush and hot soapsuds. (See treatment.) 

HEAD SCAB 

The mites (Sarcoptes) which cause this type of the disease 
burrow tunnels in the skin. The eggs are deposited in these 
tunnels and there hatched. This type of the disease usually 
shows its first symptoms around the lips or nostrils, but 
may appear on almost any portion of the head. Occa- 
sionally it invades the neck and other portions of the body 
where the wool is short. This form of scab is much less 
common and less serious than body scab. 

GENERAL PREVENTION 

Prevention is more important than treatment in any case 
where it can be secured, because it is surer, it is cheaper, 
and is usually much easier to administer than medical 
treatment. 

Spread of scab. — Whether the disease spreads rapidly 
over the body or not depends to some extent upon the 
thriftiness or unthriftiness of the individual animal. When 
sheep are fat and the wool is well supplied with yolk, this 
disease spreads slowly, and is much less serious. The in- 
fection is frequently made when one sheep rubs against 
posts or fences where scabby sheep have previously rubbed. 
In the latter case the mites are first transferred from the 
diseased sheep to the post, and then from the post to the 
healthy sheep. In other cases the mites are transferred 
when a diseased sheep rubs against a healthy one. 

Exposure resistance. — The mites which cause foot scab 



SHEEP SCAB 



115 



and body scab have considerable vitality, being able to 
withstand exposure at moderate temperatures from one to 
two or even three weeks under favorable conditions, pos- 
sibly longer. They die sooner in a dry atmosphere than 
moist. Cases are on record where sheep seem to have be- 
come infected with scab in places where sheep had not been 




Fig. 40. — A Plain Case of Sheep Scab. 



kept for many months. The history of these cases, how- 
ever, is not well understood, and it is difficult to say posi- 
tively how long mites or their eggs may preserve vitality 
under favorable conditions. 

Precautions. — Scabby sheep should not be driven over 
any public highway. Pens, sheds, and yards which have 
held scabby sheep should be thoroughly cleaned and dis- 
infected, and unless the disinfection is very thorough they 
should not be used for sheep until at least four weeks have 
elapsed. It is supposed that a hard rain will practically 
disinfect ground surfaces, but not fences and posts. Fields 
and pastures in which scabby sheep have been held should 
not be used again until after an interval of several weeks, 
and preferably not until after a heavy rain. 



116 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



GENERAL SYMPTOMS 

History and diagnosis. — At the point of first infection 
there appears a small^ congested area, showing plainly the 
result of irritation caused by the parasite. Then there ap- 
pears a little pimple, soft on top, which ruptures and- a 
little fluid escapes. Dust and other foreign matter collect 
in this fluid and the initial scab is started. 

Affected sheep are usually uneasy and are seen to scratch 
against posts, rub against other sheep, and even bite the 
itching surface. The irritation is most noticeable when the 






Psoroptes, male {Curtice). 
Body scab. 



Fig. 41. — Sheep Scab Mites. 

Sarcoptes {Lugger). 
Head scab. 



Female. 

Sarcoptes {Pettit). 
Head scab. 



sheep are heated, as by exercise, or confined in a close 
room. At first the wool is noticed to hang in tags, the 
sheep begin to pull out portions of the wool with the mouth, 
and the skin becomes bare in small patches which gradually 
increase as the mites spread, irritating and inflaming the 
skin. To determine the presence of the mites, scrape off 
some of the scab and a little of the healthy skin near the 
border of the scab. Place these scrapings upon some smooth 
black surface in warm sunshine, and examine with a good 
hand lens. The mites may then be seen as minute white 
bodies. They are most certainly recognized when they are 
seen to move, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish 
otherwise between the mites and particles of light-colored 
dust and epithelial scales from the skin surface. It should 



SHEEP SCAB 117 

be borne in mind when examining a case of head scab that 
the mites which cause this disease burrow beneath the sur- 
face of the skin, and it is necessary to scrape deeper than 
for ordinary body scab. 

Possible mistakes. — It is well to bear in mind that cer- 
tain other conditions may be mistaken for sheep scab, par- 
ticularly disorders of the skin, produced by other external 
parasites; for instance, lice and sheep ticks. We have had 
in Minnesota an interesting outbreak of skin disease among 
sheep which on superficial examination resembled rather 
closely sheep scab, but was due to the awns of a certain 
wild grass (Stipea sparta), wild oats. It developed that 
these sheep had been pastured where this grass was abun- 
dant, and at a time when the awns were readily separated. 
These little spearlike bodies gradually worked their way 
through the wool into the skin, causing inflammation of 
the skin and considerable irritation. 

TREATMENT 

Suggestions. — Treatment is comparatively easy where 
there are but few sheep, but more difficult with large flocks. 
The size of the tank, material to be used, and method of 
dipping must depend upon the number of sheep, accessi- 
bility and expensiveness of different materials. 

The dipping, as a rule, should be done after shearing, 
but it should be remembered that treatment for any para- 
sitic disease of sheep should be given as early as practicable. 
Some good may be accomplished if the wool is parted by 
hand and care taken to get the medicine down to the skin, 
but it is the usual experience that dipping unshorn sheep is 
much less satisfactory. 

The entire flock must be dipped; that is, those that are 
apparently well as well as those that are diseased. And the 
owner must bear in mind that, even after shearing, the 
wool may be a source of danger, and should be so kept and 
handled as to avoid the possibility of reinfection. 



118 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Dipping is effective only when it is thoroughly done. 
Tobacco^ crude carbolic acid^ arsenic, lime, and sulphur are 
the various ingredients that are commonly used in dipping 
for scab. The quantity of dip required per sheep varies 
from two to four gallons, according to the number of sheep 
dipped and the material used. Less dip is needed for shorn 
than unshorn sheep. 

It is a good rule to use any dip at about 110 degrees 
F. and a good plan to rub the scabs with a stiff brush 
while the sheep are in the dip. Dipping should be repeated 
in 8 days, and in some cases it may be necessary to give 
even a third dipping after a second interval of 8 to 10 days. 

For thorough work the entire flock should be shorn, then 
dipped and confined for 8 to 10 days in a place where there 
has been no scabby sheep for at least two months. At the 
close of this period of 8 to 10 days, the flock should be re- 
dipped and placed where there is no danger of infection. 
Sheep should be watered just before dipping. 

Dips. — A great variety of dips have been recommended 
and successfully used. Several of the patent dips give 
excellent results, but these are usually more expensive than 
others and are objectionable, inasmuch as we do not know 
their composition. The following are perhaps as good as 
any: — 

Lime- and- sulphur dip. — This is cheap and very effective 
for sheep scab. It has given good satisfaction when made 
and used according to directions. 

Make this dip in the following proportions: ordinary sul- 
phur 24 lbs.; unslaked lime 8 lbs.; water 100 gallons. 

The lime and sulphur are placed in a large kettle or other 
suitable container. Enough water is added to slake the 
lime and form a paste. After the lime is thoroughly slaked, 
add 30 gallons of water. The mixture is then boiled for 
3 hours and allowed to settle overnight. The liquid should 
then be so drawn off as to avoid stirring up the sediment. 
A spigot placed about 4 inches from the bottom of the barrel 
or tank works nicely. 



SHEEP SCAB 119 

For use add enough water to make a total of 100 gallons. 
The ooze or sediment is not to be used on the animal 
body, but makes a good disinfectant for contaminated 
structures. 

Lime and sulphur cannot be relied on to kill sheep ticks. 
Tobacco and sulphur or coal-tar dips should be used when 
there are both ticks and scab. 

Coal-tar dips. — Dips of this class are now accepted by 
the Federal Bureau of Animal Industry when used in official 
strength. This strength is usually given on the package, 
and directions should be followed closely. 

Texas dip. — What is known as the Texas dip is com- 
posed as follows: 30 lbs. tobacco, 7 lbs. sulphur, 3 lbs. con- 
centrated lye, 100 gallons water. Allow the tobacco to 
soak in a portion of the water, which should be kept warm, 
for from 8 to 10 hours; then add the sulphur, remainder 
of the water, and concentrated lye, and boil for half an hour. 
Stir frequently while using. 

Zundle^s. — The following is a formula for a modification 
of Zundle's dip. (Modifications suggested by Dr. Kaiser.) 
For 100 sheep take the following: Tobacco, 13^ lbs. Soak 
for several hours in 66 gallons of water, then dissolve in 
this 8 lbs. of carbonate of soda and 4 lbs. freshly burned 
and slaked lime; then take 8 lbs. of softsoap and dilute 
with some of the hot tobacco infusion and add to the ma- 
terials previously mixed; then add 4 lbs. crude carbolic 
acid; mix thoroughly. Use hot. 

Dipping. — Each sheep should be kept in the dip at 
least two minutes by the watch, and each sheep to go under 
entirely at least once. Heavily pregnant ewes can be 
safely dipped if handled with care. In using any dip, no 
matter if proprietary or homemade, follow directions exactly. 
It is not uncommon for stockmen to have unsatisfactory 
results from the use of well-recognized dips, and it is usually 
because they try using the dip a little weaker than the 
directions call for, or because they were a little careless and 
hurried the sheep through the dipping vat too rapidly, or 



120 VETERINARY STUDIES 

by returning the sheep after dipping to infected pastures 
or yards. 

Disinfection. — All structures that may have been con- 
taminated should be cleaned and well disinfected unless 
sheep can be kept away from them for a long period^ as 
previously indicated. 

Any good dip should make also a good disinfectant for 
this use. In case a lime-and-sulphur dip is selected, then 
the ^^ ooze " or sediment which would otherwise be dis- 
carded may be used. 



LECTURE XXVI 
HORSE MANGE 

Causes. — Mange in horses is usually due to the irritation 
caused by a minute animal parasite, a mite, belonging to the 
group Arachnida. Specifically it is usually Sarcoptes scabiei, 
var. equi. This is one of the smaller mites practically in- 
visible to the eye. 

This particular species burrows tunnels into and under 
the skin. The eggs are laid and the young are hatched in 
these tunnels. On account of this tunneling habit, spread 
under the body surface is slow and the disease difficult to 
cure. 

Symptoms. — The disease usually appears first on the 
head or side of the neck, and the first symptoms are small 
pimples and itching. The skin loses hair, becoming thick- 
ened, roughened, and perhaps wrinkled. Affected horses 
are much more uneasy at night, and particularly in a warm 
stable. 

Treatment. — It is usually necessary to repeat treatment 
at least once and in bad cases several times at intervals of 
ten days. Treat all horses that have been exposed to in- 
fection, and watch closely for reappearance of the disease. 

If the horses are halter broken, it is well to see that the 
scab is first remioved by a thorough application of soft soap 
well rubbed in over the affected surface. The soap is left 
on for two or three hours and then washed off. The scab 
should then remove quite easily. Allow the skin to dry 
and apply one of the following treatments : — 

(a) Creolin, or any of the cheaper coal-tar preparations, 
which are probably just as efficient, diluted with raw lin- 

121 



122 VETERINARY STUDIES 

seed oil in the proportion of 1 to 16, and used for hand ap- 
pHcation and not as a plunge dip. 

(6) The coal-tar preparations diluted with water in the 
official strength recognized by the Federal Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry (see directions on label). 

(c) Experienced veterinarians have reported very favor- 
ably upon actual trial of common " engine oil/' to which 
is added 4 or 5 oz. of sulphur per gallon. One applica- 
tion is reported as sufficient for ordinary cases. For un- 
usual cases treatment should be repeated in about 10 days. 
This also is to be used for hand applications, not as a plunge 
dip. 

(d) Crude petroleum is now recognized and especially 
recommended by our federal authorities. This is made into 
a 20 per cent mixture with soap emulsion. Take 20 gallons 
crude oil and 80 gallons water containing about 5 lbs. soap. 
Available water differs so much in different sections that it 
is difficult to specify exactly the amount of soap that will 
be needed. Any one wishing to use this method should 
first make up the soap emulsion and then test it with one 
quarter its bulk of oil to see if there results a good emul- 
sion after thorough mixing. If the oil does not emulsify 
well, add more soap. 

(e) The lime-and-sulphur dip is prepared as for sheep, 
page 118, except that we use 12 lbs. of lime instead of 8. 

The lime-and-sulphur dip is probably not so reliable as 
an oil dip, but is used and recommended by some experi- 
enced authorities. 

If a very large portion of the body surface is affected, 
either (6), (d), or (e) should be used as a dip; dips (a) or 
(c) may be used on about one quarter of the surface each 
day until the entire body has been treated. 

Always treat apparently healthy skin to a considerable 
distance beyond the diseased border, in case of small 
areas. 

Prognosis. — The prospect of recovery is good in recent 
cases, but if the horse has been long affected and the disease 



MANGE - 123 

covers a considerable portion of the body, then the prospect 
is not encouraging. 

Disinfection. — All structures which may have become 
contaminated should be thoroughly disinfected. The ooze 
or sediment made in the preparation of the sulphur dip 
will serve well for this purpose, or a G per cent solution of 
any of the better coal-tar disinfectants may serve the same 
purpose. 

CATTLE MANGE 

This is the same general disease as horse mange and sheep 
scab. 

Mange causes serious trouble and losses in range cattle 
and is occasionally a source of serious trouble among farm 
herds. Of the latter, breeding herds seem most apt to be- 
come infected on account of more frequent opportunities 
by the purchase of new breeding stock. This disease is 
rarely fatal in cattle that are well kept; but is a source of 
financial losses by reason of unthrift. In farm herds it is 
a serious nuisance^ to say the least, and should not be neg- 
lected or ignored. 

Cause. — Cattle mange is due to mite, Psoroptes com- 
munis, var. bovis, similar in general to the mite which causes 
horse mange. The mite of cattle mange is larger than the 
one causing horse mange, being visible under favorable con- 
ditions. 

It lives upon the surface of the body and can move 
about rather freely ; hence the disease spreads more rapidly 
than horse mange and is easier to cure. The skin irritation 
and inflammation is due to punctures which the mites make 
in order to suck through them their nourishment. 

Symptoms. — Symptoms of cattle mange are similar in a 
general way" to those shown in mange of horses. With 
cattle the disease usually appears first on the neck or shoulder 
or near the tail, and from these places it spreads over other 
portions of the body. The skin becomes bald, thickened, 
and wrinkled, perhaps badly scratched and sore as a result of 
rubbing. 



124 VETERINARY STUDIES 

There may be very little to show for mange while the 
cattle are out on grass and doing well, although the mites 
are still present on the body. Fall, winter, and early 
spring are the seasons of greatest prevalence and annoyance. 

Treatment. — Cattle may be either dipped like sheep or 
treated with local applications according to the extent of 
the disease and number of animals affected. Dipping may 
be done either in a long swimming tank, or the animals may 
be dipped one at a time in a dipping cage. 

Every portion of the body surface should usually be 
treated either by wash or dip. In case of dipping, all por- 
tions of the body should go under the dip at least once, 
and the animal be kept in the dip from two to four minutes. 
Treatment should be repeated in about ten days. In case 
of infected herds and until the disease is entirely removed, 
dipping should be repeated twice each spring and fall. The 
dip should be used quite warm, from 104 to 110 degrees F. 

After treatment the cattle should not be put back into 
infected yards, pens, or stables. Such inclosures should be 
either thoroughly disinfected or cattle should be kept out 
of them for a considerable period. For detailed information 
concerning dipping plants, see Nebraska Station Bulletin 74, 
North Dakota Station Bulletin 61, or Bureau of Animal 
Industry Bulletin 40. 

Either of the following preparations may be used : — 

(a) Lime-and-sulphur dip is an old, thoroughly tried, and 
reliable treatment. It is cheap and effective. Directions 
should be followed closely as given undersheepscab, page 118. 

(6) Coal-tar preparations are also effective for cattle mange 
when used according to official standards as approved by 
the Federal Bureau of Animal Industry. This is usually 
given on the accompanying directions. 

(c) Engine oil and sidphiir, as given for horse mange, has 
been reported by experienced veterinarians as very satis- 
factory for use as a wash. The use of this preparation 
thus far reported has been in the case of a comparatively 
few animals for hand application and not as a plunge dip. 



LECTURE XXVII 



PARASITES— EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL 




Fig. 42. 



Lice. — These are wingless insects classified by different 
authorities into two or three very different families. As a 
rule they are specific, i.e. a certain species of louse is para- 
sitic on a certain species of bird or animal. In size, 
they vary from mere specks 
to one third of an inch in 
length. 

Lice infest especially 
certain portions of the body 
surface of each animal, 
e.g. for cattle, the back; 
for hogs, back of the ears; 
for poultry, the fluff and 
under the wings; for young 
chickens, the top of the 
head. 

Reproduction. — Lice reproduce by eggs (nits) glued to 
hairs or feathers. The eggs are very light in color and 
oval in shape. 

Treatment. — (1) Bathe the affected parts with corrosive 
sublimate in water, 15 grains to the pint; or (2) tobacco 
water (steep for an hour 2 oz. of tobacco to each quart of 
water); or (3) for small surfaces, as mane and root of tail, 
kerosene 1 part, linseed oil 10 parts; or (4) Professor Riley's 
kerosene emulsion made as follows : kerosene 2 gallons ; soft 
soap one half pound; water 1 gallon. Dissolve the soap in 
water by boiling and add kerosene slowly while still boiling. 
Churn 10 minutes and dilute by adding 8 times its bulk 
of water. This is cheap, harmless, and satisfactory. 

125 



Melophagus 
louse. 



Sheep Tick and Enlarged 
Proboscis. 

Properly a sheep 



126 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Any treatment for lice should be repeated several times 
at intervals of one week. It is frequently advisable to 
whitewash stalls and sheds. All harboring litter should be 
removed and burned. Clipping is a great aid in the treat- 
ment of external parasitism. 

It is difficult to treat sheep successfully for either lice or 
scab without shearing. 

For cattle, horses, and young stock, in cold weather dust 
into the hair along neck, back, and rump, Persian insect 
powder, or use solution No. 4, and blanket if stable is cold. 
A little kerosene oil on a root, fiber, or bristle brush, used 
frequently, is safe and effective if used with reasonable 
caution. 

For poultry use whitewash in abundance, and plenty of 
fine, air-slaked lime dusted into the nests and on the floor. 
It is a good plan to throw a handful at a time against the 
wall, so that it will float in the air and then gradually settle 
down into crevices and over the poultry. Or spray kero- 
sene over the walls and ceiling and wash perches frequently 
with kerosene. This is cheap, rapidly applied, and very 
effective. Give constant access to dust bath of dust or 
sifted ashes, air-slaked lime, sulphur, and Persian insect 
powder. Keep poultry house dry. 

Flies. — At times flies prove a serious nuisance for do- 
mestic animals, particularly horses and cattle. Various 
preparations have been tried at various experiment stations 
with fairly satisfactory results. 

No. 1. Tested and reported as satisfactory by the Ne- 
braska Experiment Station : — 

Oil of wood tar 1 part; neutral oil (a petroleum product) 
4 parts. Mix and shake thoroughly. A very light appli- 
cation of this should be made by brush or spray. It is 
occasionally necessary to sponge off the hair with a cloth, 
using a little of the neutral oil on account of a httle gum 
which collects with repeated application. This prepa- 
ration costs at wholesale approximately 40 cents per 
gallon. 




PARASITES 127 

No. 2. Was selected and recommended by the Kansas 
Experiment Station after the trial of several preparations : — 

One and one half parts resin^ two cakes laundry soap, 
one half pint fish oil, water to make 3 gallons. 

This should be well mixed and applied in very hght 
dressing with brush or spray. If used as spray, one half 
pint of kerosene may be added. 

Ringworm appears most commonly on heads and necks 
of cattle, especially calves; but man and all domestic ani- 
mals are also subject. It is caused by a vegetable parasite 
growing in the skin, somewhat like 
mildew in a grape leaf. This dis- 
ease appears in the form of round, 
raised, and bald patches, especially 
on the heads and necks of calves 

during the winter. The patches Fig. 43. — Horse Bot Fly and 

are scaly or crusty, an inch or two GastrovhUuTlqui. Larva in 
across; the hairs stand erect, then t^e third stage. See internal 

1 rri n Parasites, page 128. 

spilt and break. I here are usually 

several such patches close together. Kingworm spreads 

readily by inoculation. It is not especially serious, but 

disagreeable. 

Treatment. — Use scrubbing brush, soap, and warm 
water; then apply every other day 10 per cent carbolic 
acid in glycerine, or tincture of iodine and tincture of iron, 
equal parts. 

Ticks. — Ticks belong to the same general class as mites, 
spiders, etc. (Arachnida). They are temporary parasites 
and commonly found in brush and tall grass. 

Life history. — The young female crawls up on brush or 
grass or weeds and waits for some animal to come along and 
brush her off. She soon attaches to the skin, gorges with 
blood, and drops off. After a few days, she begins laying 
several thousand eggs and then soon dies. The eggs hatch 
in 15 to 20 days if conditions are favorable. 

Treatment. — Any safe oily preparation may be used to 
destroy ticks. 



128 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



INTERNAL PARASITES 

The most common internal parasites are roundworms; 
flatworms, and bots. 

Bots. — The common bot of the horse's stomach is the 
larva form of the horse gadfly or botfly. This fly is com- 
monly observed buzzing around horses in the fall. It is 
about the size of a common honeybee. The botfly re- 




FiG. 44. — Horse Bots and Botfly. 

{B. A. I.) 

The eggs are deposited on the hairs during 

the fall. They are taken off by the tongue ; 

hatch and develop in the stomach, into the 

bots (larvae). 



produces by oval, light yellow eggs which are attached by 
the adult fly to hairs about the neck, breast, and fore- 
arms. 

In a short time the eggs hatch, and the small larvae or 
bots escape. Some are licked off and thus reach the stomach, 
where they attach firmly to the lining by small hooks. 
They remain thus in the stomach about 10 months, then 
pass off with the manure. The next or pupal stage lasts 
4 to 6 weeks and is passed in the ground. After this the 
mature fly appears ready for the next generation. 



PARASITES 



129 



Bots rarely do any serious harm^ although very common. 

Medical treatment has not proven satisfactory. 

Nematodes {roundworms). — For pinworms, which inhabit 
the rectum in horses, empty this organ by means of warm 
water injections and then use warm rectal injections of 
astringent and bitter medicines, hke a very mild solution 
of copperas or a strong tea made 
of quassia chips. Repeat once 
daily for 2 or 3 days, and follow 
with an oily physic; e.g. 1 quart 
of raw linseed oil. 

For the ^^ long white worms " 
(6 to 12 inches long) affecting the 
intestines of horses, the treatment 
must be vigorous and continued. 
Use three times daily either (1) 
or (2) as follows : — 

(1) Arsenious acid 3 to 8 grains, 
three times a day for 10 days, be- 
ginning with the smaller dose and 
increasing gradually to the larger. 
On the eleventh day give linseed 
oil, 1 pint, and Croton oil, 20 drops. 
Shake well ; the arsenious acid to 
be well mixed with damp food. 

Or (2) give a cathartic of 1 
quart of linseed oil, feed little or 
no hay for 4 days, then give 2 oz. 
of turpentine in 1 quart linseed oil 
on the fifth day and repeat on the 

sixth. Repeat this whole process, beginning on the six- 
teenth day, if the first treatment does not seem effec- 
tive. 

Tapeworms (flatworms). — These are most serious in 
sheep, which are infested by at least eight species. 

Treatment can only be useful before weakness begins. 
For large lambs and yearlings, give no food the night before; 




Fig. 45. — A Common Tape- 
worm OF Sheep. (Curtice.) 
Tcenia expansa. 

1. Head and Neck. A, A, 
suckers ; B, B, folds in neck ; 
C, C, first segments. 

2. Head and body, showing 
segments. A, head. 



130 VETERINARY STUDIES 

then give each in the morning 2 drams of ethereal oil of 
male fern in 2 to 4 oz. castor oil. 

Or after fasting, give to each sheep powdered areca nut 
2 drams; oil of male fern 1 dram in 4 oz. of sirup; follow 
by 4 to 6 oz. of castor oil the next day. For older sheep 
give from a half more to twice these doses. 

For intestinal worms in swine, santonine 5 grain dose, 
repeated if necessary, or 25 drops turpentine three times a 
day. 



LECTURE XXVIII 
NODULE DISEASE OF SHEEP 

General history. — The history of outbreaks is often as 
follows: Sheep have access during the summer and fall to 
low pastures or pond or well water that receives drainage 
from a sheep yard or pasture. Perhaps the grass was short 
and the flock compelled to graze very close. 

During the winter the flock becomes unthrifty; some 
individuals grow gradually thinner and weaker until a 
number die during the late winter and early spring. A 
dead sheep is opened and the intestines show on the sur- 
face a large number of nodules about the size of garden 
peas. As soon as the grass comes and the sheep are turned 
out they begin to do better, and the disease seems to dis- 
appear. 

Cause.. — The disease is caused by a minute roundworm 
{Oesophagostoma colunibianum) . The adult worms are about 
three quarters of an inch in length and inhabit the intes- 
tines. The immature forms vary from one hundredth to 
one sixth of an inch in length, depending on development, 
and exist inside of the little nodules which constitute the 
most prominent features of the disease as seen on exami- 
nation post mortem. 

The eggs are laid by the adult female in the intestine. 
There is some question concerning the life history, but 
either the eggs soon hatch in the intestine or they pass out 
with manure, hatch outside, and gain entrance as embryos. 
In either case the embryo worms find their way through 
the internal lining of the intestine, and locate in the bowel 
wall. Here they give rise as foreign bodies to the little 

131 



132 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



tumors or nodules which nature throws around them, evi- 
dently in an attempt to fence them in. They cause irrita- 
tion as foreign bodies, and this irritation will account for 
the little tumors which are found on the side of the intes- 
tine; i.e. the nodules. 

Some of the eggs and adult worms pass out with the 




Fig. 46. — Nodule Disease. {M.H.R.) 
Intestines of sheep. 

manure, and thus infect the pastures and feed yards, ponds, 
or sluggish streams which receive their drainage. 

Injury done. — The extent of injury to the individual 
sheep depends mainly upon the number of worms present, 
and the condition of the sheep as to vitality and resisting 
power. There may be something of an inflammation of the 
bowels while the young worms are passing through the lining 
of the intestine, but the main injury is that of starvation. 
So large a portion of the bowel is affected by the parasites 
when they are present in great number that there is not 
enough healthy tissue to absorb the food material. It may 



NODULE DISEASE OF SHEEP 133 

be also that the worms excrete poisonous substances; or 
their presence may lead indirectly to the formation of 
poisonous materials which are absorbed. A badly infested 
sheep may have plenty of good food and yet be too weak 
to eat it; or if able to eat^ he ma}^ still be starving because 
the intestinal wall cannot take up the food that may be 
ready for absorption. 

Older sheep suffer worse, as a rule, because the longer an 
infected animal lives, the worse the intestines become dis- 
eased by the parasites. 

Diagnosis. — This disease is rare among range sheep, but 
rather common among farm sheep. There is diarrhea, 
debility, pallor of mucous membranes, and emaciation. 
Diagnosis can only be made certain by finding the charac- 
teristic nodules in an examination of the dead animal, for 
sheep infested with some other parasitic diseases show 
similar symptoms and conditions during life. 

Treatment. — It is probable that but little can be accom- 
plished by medical treatment, because the worms, during a 
large part of their life history, are walled up in these nodules 
and beyond the reach of any medical agent. 

It is possible that worm-destroying medicines, like those 
recommended for stomach worms, if frequently repeated 
during the summer, might prove both curative and pre- 
ventive, by killing the adult worms, which live free in the 
intestine. Pasture infection may be destroyed by plow- 
ing and cropping one season. Dr. Dalrymple and others 
have shown that lambs may suckle the diseased dams under 
certain conditions and usually remain free from infection. 
This is accomplished by what is known as the bare-lot 
method. Under this system lambs are not allowed access 
to any pasture that can possibly have been contaminated 
by the older sheep. 

The bare-lot method provides that ewes and lambs must 
be kept in a lot that is bare of any grass or weeds which 
sheep may eat. This lot must be rather smooth and drain 
promptly and without standing pools after rain. No graz- 



134 VETERINARY STUDIES 

ing for the older sheep is permitted, the flock being fed on 
soiHng crops and whatever grain may be necessary. Fresh, 
clean water must be provided. Food and water must be 
given in such a way that they cannot possibly be con- 
taminated from the ground ; food that falls out of the racks 
must be raked up rather frequently. 

Ewe lambs to be kept in the flock should be raised with 
special care to avoid trouble the next season from chance 
infection that occurs to such lambs from the bare lot. By 
this method the lambs may run with the diseased ewes until 
weaning time with comparatively slight risk of infection. 
In dealing with a serious outbreak of this disease it should 
be remembered that infested flocks usually do fairly well 
during the summer and early fall months. If a flock is 
badly infested with nodule disease, it will generally prove 
good management to nurse the flock through until spring, 
then depend on getting the sheep into shape for market 
during the summer, and sell out for butcher stock in the 
early fall. Such sheep are entirely fit for food purposes 
when in good flesh. 

Prevention. — New sheep should be purchased from a 
flock that has been thrifty during two previous late winters 
and early springs, and they should be kept for two seasons 
on some other pasture than the one previously used on the 
infected farm. It will be better still if the flock can be 
kept part of the season on pasture and part of the season 
on plowed crops; e.g. rape, sorghum, field peas, or meadow 
land that has not recently been used for sheep pasture. 
The new flock must not be allowed to drink from any pond 
or sluggish stream that has received drainage from the in- 
fested pasture or barnyard. 

With a view to preventing this and other parasitic dis- 
eases, the flock should not be kept too long on one pasture, 
but should be moved from pasture to pasture; and from 
pasture to stubble fields, cut-over meadow, rape, etc. 
Sluggish streams and ponds should be regarded with sus- 
picion always. 



NODULE DISEASE OF SHEEP 135 

It is possible to practically rid a flock from this disease by 
following this course of shifting the flock about for several 
years, plowing up pastures occasionally, and using plowed 
crops. The infectiousness of pastures has been shown by 
careful experiment in which infected sheep were placed on 
small pastures during a season and then during the next 
season sheep were kept on this same pasture which were 
previously free from nodule disease. Rapid infection of 
the second flock was secured in this way. The disease 
spreads from ewes to pasture and from pasture to lamb. 



LECTURE XXIX 



STOMACH WORMS (SHEEP) 

The stomach worm is one of the especially common and 
serious parasites of sheep, and this means much, for para- 
sitic diseases of sheep are the serious 
ones. This parasite is very wide- 
spread. It affects sheep of all ages 
and young cattle, but especially 
lambs. Older sheep showing no 
symptoms are the ones usually to 
blame for spreading the disease. 

The parasite (Hcemonchus con- 
tortus) which causes this trouble is 
a small, threadlike worm, perhaps 
an inch in length and so slender 
that it must be looked for carefully 
or one is liable to miss it. The indi- 
vidual worms are somewhat twisted 
and are found in the fourth stom- 
ach. Frequently they are in motion. 
If they are present in great numbers^ 
the stomach contents near the mu- 
cous membrane may seem to be- 
fairly alive and squirming. The 
worms vary from reddish to dirty 
white in color. 

Life history. — This parasite is 
present in the stomach at all times of the year. 

The eggs are passed off in the feces and reach the en- 
sheathed embryo stage in from ten days to two weeks 
when conditions of temperature and moisture are suitable. 

136 




Fig. 47. 
Embryo of Hsemonchus con- 
tortus coiled on tip of grass 
blade. Enlarged 100 times. 
(Ransom, B. A. I., Circular 
93.) 



STOMACH WORMS (SHEEP) 137 

Eggs and newly hatched embryos are very sensitive to 
freezing or drying, and easily die under these conditions. 
Ensheathed embryos are very resistant. We cannot de- 
pend on their natural destruction in much less than a year. 
They have been shown to be capable of infection after 
several months. 

When the atmosphere is moist, embryos leave the manure 
or earth and crawl up the moistened blades of grass or 
similar objects, climbing only while there is moisture. If 
now they are swallowed by a suitable host, the embryo 
continues development for about three weeks, at which time 
the females may begin to produce eggs. 

Symptoms. — There are no diagnostic symptoms by 
which this disease can be distinguished from other internal 
parasitic diseases of sheep. There is a graduall}^ develop- 
ing weakness and unthrift. Lambs are affected more seri- 
ously than older sheep. These are usually unthrifty during 
the late summer, and some die during the late summer and 
fall. The most common and evident symptoms are pallor, 
loss of flesh, and weakness. The appetite is variable; 
affected sheep are usually dull, listless, and often have un- 
usual thirst and diarrhea. There frequently appear swell- 
ings under the jaw. 

To make a certain diagnosis it is usually necessary to 
examine the carcass of sheep recently dead or kill a sick 
one for this purpose. Examine very carefully the fourth 
stomach. If this stomach is opened at the top and con- 
tents allowed to rest quietly, the stomach worms, if present 
in sufficient numbers to cause trouble, will be seen in quite 
active motion, wiggling about like tiny snakes. They may 
sometimes be found in very large numbers close to the 
lining membrane as slender worms varying from one half 
to about one inch in length. 

Management of infected flocks. — An infected pasture 
may be safe after a year if there has been no use by sheep 
in the interval. Burning over a pasture is very efficient 
for the ground actually burned over. 



138 VETERINARY STUDIES 

In dealing with an infected flock, we may treat both the 
lambs and their mothers early in the season; the death loss 
may thus be prevented or very greatly reduced, and the 
lambs do much better. It should be clear that there is no 
way of certainly and rapidly eradicating stomach worms 
from a diseased flock. The rational hope lies in reduction 
and gradual eradication. 

One of our best authorities ^ who has been working on 
this problem for years advises that all sheep be given proper 
medical treatment in March and put on the safest pasture 
available, Pasture No. 1. In July the entire flock is treated 
again and moved to Pasture or Field No. 2. In November 
they are given a third treatment and moved to Pasture or 
Field No. 3, where they may remain until March. In 
March of the second year they are placed in Pasture or 
Field No. 4. In July they are returned to Pasture No. 1. 
In November they are given medical treatment and moved 
to Pasture or Field No. 2. Here they remain until March 
of the third year, when they go to Pasture or Field No. 3. 

During the intervals between sheep occupancy, pastures 
may be used by horses or hogs, but not cattle unless they 
are treated like the sheep and moved with the sheep. 

Medical treatment is given only once a year, and late in 
the fall after the first year. 

Climates and seasons would necessitate some modifica- 
tions of this plan to suit conditions. 

Medical treatment. — Sheep intended for medical treat- 
ment should have no feed during 12 to 24 hours before the 
medicine is given. No matter which treatment is to be 
given, it should be tried on a few sheep before treating a 
very large number. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry has done some careful 
experimenting in this line, and recommends cool-tar creosote 
as a satisfactory treatment. This medicine is not expen- 
sive and is very easily obtained and prepared. It is im- 
portant to insist upon getting coal-tar creosote, not beech- 
^ Ransome, B. A. I., Circular 157. 



STOMACH WORMS (SHEEP) 139 

wood creosote, which is ordinarily dispensed. Coal-tar 
creosote is cheaper and more satisfactory. It is given as a 
1 per cent solution; i.e. 1 oz. of the creosote to 99 oz. of 
water in doses proportioned to the age and size of the sheep. 
Lambs 4 months old take 2 to 4 oz. Older sheep take 3 
to 5 oz. If there is any reason to suspect the presence of 
worms in the intestines, then thymol should be added to 
the creosote treatment. The dose of thymol is from 30 to 
100 grains. Each dose of thymol is to be added to the dose 
of creosote after the latter has been mixed and measured, 
and should then be given immediately. Only fresh crystal- 
lized thymol should be accepted. 

Bluestone (copper sulphate) has been accepted as one of 
the most satisfactory treatments for this trouble, but it 
needs to be given in carefully regulated doses. This medi- 
cine may be made up as follows: Dissolve 1 lb. (avoirdu- 
pois) of fresh powdered bluestone in 9 gallons of water. 
For this treatment the animal must be kept off feed from 
20 to 24 hours. The dose for a lamb 6 months old is 40 c.c. ; 
sheep 12 months old, 60 c.c. (about 2 oz.); 18 months, 
80 c.c; 2 years, 90 c.c. When the bluestone treatment is 
used, sheep should receive no water on the day that they 
are treated, either before or after treatment. 

Gasoline has been much used in recent years and with 
good results. It is cheap, easily obtained, and easily given. 
Gasoline treatment should be repeated on three successive 
days. Sheep should be given the gasoline about ten o'clock 
in the morning, having received no feed since at least the 
evening before — 24 hours' fasting is better. Three hours 
after treatment they are given feed and water. Then in 
the evening they are put up again without feed or water 
and given a second treatment the next day about 10 a.m., 
and again on the third day, following the same procedure. 
Each dose for the 3 days is measured separately and given 
in linseed oil or milk, but not water. 

Large lambs take about 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls ; sheep and 
calves take about 1 tablespoonful. Enough gasoline should 
be given to produce slight intoxication. 



140 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Drenching sheep. — For giving medicine to sheep, a 
drenching tube should be used or a large piston syringe, 
or a long-necked bottle. A very satisfactory drenching 
tube may be easily made with an ordinary tin funnel, which 
is inserted into one end of a rubber hose about 3 feet long 
and about one half inch in diameter. A piece of brass or 
iron tubing 4 to 6 inches long is inserted into the other 
end of the tube. The metal tube is placed in the animal's 
mouth between the back teeth; the funnel end is held at a 
convenient height and medicine poured slowly into it. It 
is better to give the medicine with the sheep standing on 
its feet, because actual experiment has demonstrated that 
while the animal is in this position more of the medicine 
goes directly to the fourth stomach, where it is needed. The 
head must be raised not too high — not higher than level 
face; otherwise there is danger of passing medicine into the 
lungs. 

Prevention. — Sick animals must be killed or removed 
from the flock and confined where there is no drainage to 
the pasture or yard used by other sheep or cattle. Water 
should be taken from wells that do not receive surface 
drainage from large lakes or from running streams, although 
stagnant pools are probably not so dangerous in this con- 
nection as commonly supposed. The tank or trough should 
be high enough so that the water cannot possibly be con- 
taminated from droppings. High and well-drained pasture 
is always safer than low pastures so far as internal parasites 
in general are concerned. Infected pastures should be 
burned over thoroughly and regularly for the purpose of 
destroying eggs and young worms. 

It should be borne in mind that when animals are well 
fed and well nourished, they are better able to resist the in- 
vasion of any parasite. 



LECTURE XXX 

VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS, NASAL GRUB, AND 
CATARRH 

VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS 

Cause. — This is a disease of the bronchial tubes and 
lungs, caused by special species of minute roundworms. 
The worms are similar in different domestic animals, but 
each animal has its own species. They vary from about 
one to three inches in length and are white or reddish to 
brown in color. There is therefore little danger of infec- 
tion from one kind of domestic animals to another. Sheep, 
goats, cattle, and pigs are subject to this disease. Older 
animals may be seriously affected, but more frequently 
carry the parasite without evident injury. 

Life history. — The mature worms, eggs, and embryos 
are all found in the bronchial tubes. These may be coughed 
out, and many ultimately reach pools or small ponds of 
stagnant water. The larvae are usually swallowed with the 
food or drink, and some of them ultimately reach the trachea, 
probably by way of the larynx. It is possible that the eggs 
or dried embryos may be inhaled directly with particles of 
dust. Infection occurs mainly in the spring. The para- 
sitism remains long dormant, slowly developing until fall. 
The disease seems to be especially common in dry years, or 
in wet years following dry years. Embryos and eggs are 
very resistant and tenacious of life at all stages. Some 
species have been shown to survive for months as embryos 
in water or moist earth. If dried at certain stages of de- 
velopment, the embryos may revive in moisture after a 
year. This explains the tendency of verminous bronchitis 

141 



142 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



to appear in dry seasons^ or in wet seasons following dry 
seasons. 

Symptoms. — At first there is a bronchial catarrh; later 
a chronic anaemia and pallor with progressive loss of flesh 
and strength and with shortness of breath. There is a 
cough which at first is rather harsh^ and later very weak. 
The cough is worse when animals are excited and when they 
move round. Sometimes small balls composed mainly of 
worms may be coughed out and actually seen. Respiration 
is difficult and in some cases wheezing. Calves are able to 
resist rather longer than sheep. 




Fig. 48. — Sheep Gadfly {CEstrus ovis). 
Commonly called " nasal grub," a, Adult ; b, larva ; c, puparium. 

On examination post mortem there may be found masses 
of minute threadlike worms in the trachea and bronchial 
tubeSj with a considerable quantity of purulent and viscid 
liquid in the tubes. Some lobules of the lungs may show 
very marked pneumonia. There may also be tubercles re- 
sembling those of tuberculosis, near the surface of the 
lungs, and also throughout the lung substance. 

Treatment. — For the present we must consider this as 
generally doubtful of success. Treatment by injection of 
medicines directly into the trachea has been tried and 
recommended in some cases, but is very apt to prove un- 



VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS 143 

satisfactory. In cases of valuable sheep the following is 
worth trial : — 

Olive oil, 100 grams. 

Turpentine, 100 grams. 

Carbolic acid, 2 grams. 

Give 10 grams per day for 3 days. Each dose is given 
by a large hypodermic syringe and injected directly into 
the trachea. 

Benzine has been tried and reported successful by several. 
Inject about 1 dram (1 teaspoonful) slowly into the trachea. 
Use an ordinary hypodermic syringe and inject directly 
through the side of the trachea between two rings. The 
sheep must be held fiat on the side at the time of injection 
and for five minutes afterward, and with the head as low 
as possible. It would be wise to treat but a few sheep at 
first and note results. 

Prevention. — Change pastures often; keep sheep upon 
forage crops and upon frequently changed pastures. Avoid 
ponds and well water which receives drainage from pastures, 
feed lots, or barnyards. 

NASAL GRUB (GRUB IN THE HEAD) 

This is a very poor name for a disease, but is the only one 
commonly understood and is used here for that reason. 

Cause. — This disease is caused by a parasite (CEstrus 
ovis) which inhabits the various cavities of the head which 
communicate with the nasal chambers. See Fig. 48. 

Life history. — The mature fly resembles the well-known 
botfly of the horse, is of a dirty yellow or grayish yellow 
color, and appears in the middle of the day from July to 
September. The young larvae are deposited about the nos- 
trils of the sheep, from whence they crawl up into the various 
cavities of the head, including the horn cores, and may 
even reach the brain substance. They mature in about nine 
months. The developed grubs work out, escaping from the 
nose during the spring, from March to May. They then 



144 VETERINARY STUDIES 

pass through another stage before the adult fly appears^ 
which occurs in six or seven weeks from the time the grubs 
escape from the nose. 

Symptoms. — A few larvae may not cause any evident 
disturbance. When present in the head sinuses in larger 
numbers, the parasites cause great irritation with marked 
catarrhal discharge from the nostrils, especially in the 
spring. The affected animals may refuse to eat well and 
even cough. The sheep sneeze, shake their heads, and rub 
their noses and faces against their feet or other objects; 
sometimes there are attacks of vertigo, and the walk may 
be unsteady or irregular; severe cases develop convulsions 
and die. On examination post mortem, grubs are found in 
the various openings and chambers of the head, and the 
mucous membrane lining these cavities is inflamed. 

Treatment. — Medical treatment under ordinary circum- 
stances is not practical, and prevention is very difficult to 
apply on a large scale. Before the sheep are turned out 
in the morning their noses may be smeared with tar or a 
mixture of tar, turpentine, and fish oil. They may be 
forced to take their salt through a large hole bored in a log 
or a plank, the tar being smeared around the edges of the 
hole so that, when the sheep take their salt, they get a little 
tar around the nose and mouth. 



CATARRH IN SHEEP 

Causes. — Catarrh in sheep is so frequently associated 
with nasal grub that it seems best to insert a brief men- 
tion of it in this connection. 

Simple catarrh in sheep is usually due to cold rains, im- 
perfect ventilation and damp quarters, or undue exposure 
after early shearing. In other words, it is simply a case of 
catching cold. Many cases of catarrh are due to parasitic 
invasion of the nasal chambers and head sinuses. Simple 
catarrh is not contagious, although many cases may appear 
simultaneously, due to common causes. 



CATARRH IN SHEEP 145 

Symptoms. — The affected sheep are noticed to be sneez- 
ing, with discharge from the nose and eyes, and sometimes 
coughing. The nasal discharge is thin at first, gradually 
becoming thicker. Some cases become chronic, and es- 
pecially when the subjects are weak and unthrifty. The 
inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane may then 
extend into the head sinuses, and cause extensive collec- 
tions of pus, and also extend down the mucous membrane 
lining the trachea. 

Prevention. — First of all, abundant ventilation at all 
seasons. Sheep are very frequently housed too closely in 
winter. The interior of the building becomes very damp, 
and the conditions in general are unwholesome. Healthy 
sheep do not need much protection in the winter-time, so 
far as warmth is concerned. If they are well protected 
from cold rains and snows and from cold winds, they are 
most thrifty with abundant ventilation. Sheep that are 
shorn early in the spring need careful management for a 
time in order to prevent their catching cold. 

Treatment. — The sick animals must have shelter. Their 
quarters must be dry, reasonably warm, and well ventilated. 
They must be well fed. The medicinal treatment should 
consist mainly of tonics ; for instance, a simple, bitter 
vegetable tonic, like gentian root, which may be given in a 
powdered form in the feed two or three times daily, — about 
one dram per sheep. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

LECTURE XXXI 
ACTINOMYCOSIS OR LUMPY JAW 

Definition. — This disease is commonly called either 
lumpy jaw or bighead. It is characterized by the develop- 
ment of peculiar enlargements, usually around the head. 
The disease may also affect internal organs. 

The tumors and abscesses which characterize this disease 
probably have a common origin, being due to the presence 
and activity of a vegetable organism known as actinomyces. 
When these abscesses are opened, there is usually found, in 
the interior, pus containing minute yellow or white grains, 
sometimes very abundant. These small grains may be 
bedded in the diseased soft tissues of the tumors. Seen 
under a microscope, this fungus under certain conditions 
seems to be composed of radiating club-shaped particles. 
As the fungus multiplies and spreads, the tumor growths in- 
crease. The tumors are usually very firm on account of the 
large amount of connective tissue which they contain. 
The interior of the tumor is usually somewhat honey- 
combed with the fungus colonies in the spaces. Animals 
affected are chiefly cattle, horses, and sheep. 

Relation to public health. — Human beings are evidently 
susceptible to inoculation from this disease, but as the 
affected parts of diseased carcasses are not commonly used 
as articles of human food, and animal meats as a rule are 
cooked before being eaten, there is ordinarily comparatively 
slight danger for human beings. The government meat in- 
spection regulations pass carcasses which are but slightly 
and locally diseased, and condemn those which are exten- 
sively and generally diseased. 

146 



ACTINOMYCOSIS OR LUMPY JAW 



147 



Parts involved. — These are commonly the bones of the 
upper and lower jaws, the soft tissues between the two 
branches of the lower jaw, and the tongue. These are the 
external or superficial portions of the body most commonly 
affected. This disease sometimes affects the lungs and 
other internal organs, and might be mistaken for tuberculosis. 
The lung symptoms, as seen on examination post mortem, 
vary so much that it is rather difficult to describe them. 




Fig. 49. — Actinomycosis — Lumpy Jaw. (M.H.R.) 
Note the enlarged jaw and the raw, granulating tissue exposed. 



Sometimes the lungs resemble those seen in ordinary broncho- 
pneumonia. In other cases considerable areas of the lung 
tissue are changed to a gray mass, soft to the touch. In 
still other cases there are developed distinct abscesses. 

This disease is usually of slow development. A small 
swelhng appears somewhere about the head, perhaps under 
the tongue; or the bones of the face near the teeth begin 
to bulge slightly outward and the enlargements continue 
very slowly. The animal may remain thrifty for a long 



148 VETERINARY STUDIES 

time, or indeed until the disease involves the teeth, tongue, 
or other organs and interferes directly with nutrition. 

Prevention. — There is so little known concerning the life 
history of the parasite and the methods of infection that a 
study of prevention can be only partially satisfactory. It 
is generally agreed that animals develop lumpy jaw only 
after inoculation, i.e. the germs find entrance through some 
cut or scratch in the skin; through the mucous membrane 
of the mouth on account of diseased teeth; or through some 
abrasion of the mucous membrane of the mouth, gullet, 



'IRlM^ ' 




:a^ 


A 


r 






W^^f^M 


^Kh,^ -'';.■<-', i,^^^i:i 


iP^i 


m 


r 


^Bf --J 










' • ■■ -■ "' m ' ' " ■ ;' 







Fig. 50. — Actinomycosis. {M.H.R.) 
Inferior maxilla of cow shown in Fig. 49. 

or stomach. It is also generally agreed that the parasite 
is usually taken in with the food. It is possible that this 
parasite may live through one stage of its development, or 
even multiply, upon the surface or in the tissues of some 
of the common fodder plants, particularly barley and rye. 
An animal with a discharging abscess about the head 
would of course infect food in mangers, feeding troughs, and 
grass in the pasture ; thus offering abundant opportunities 
for infection. Pastures wherein cases of lumpy jaw seem 
to develop rather commonly should be placed under culti- 
vation or avoided. Animals with discharging abscesses 
should be killed or confined. 



ACTINOMYCOSIS OR LUMPY JAW 



149 



Treatment. — There are three possible Hnes of treatment : 
surgical, caustic, and internal medication. 

Surgical treatment. — This should be undertaken only by 
a trained veterinarian, on account of the large blood vessels 
and other important structures involved. 

Caustic. — Dr. Detmers, formerly of the Ohio Experiment 
Station, described several years ago a method of local 
treatment, in which he proposed to remove the tumor by 



i^-mm^ 



§^m 



■^li 



'^^^^B^S^IS-. 



Fig. 51 — Actinomycosis. (M.H.R.) 
A badly diseased upper jaw. 



the deeply caustic action of powdered arsenic. He reported 
a large number of cases treated with satisfactory results. 
His method was essentially as follows: — 

The method is simple. One half ounce of powdered arse- 
nious acid is added to two drams of caustic potash, one half 
ounce of powdered gum arable, and one ounce of distilled 
water. This makes a thick, sirupy mass. The mixture is 
kept in a wide-mouthed bottle and labeled '' Poison.''^ 
Take a small stick of hard wood and sharpen it to a point 
somewhat resembling the dulled blade of a dagger, the 
tapering end being made as smooth as possible. An incision 
is made into the abscess pocket, or into the interior of the 
tumor, as the case may be. Then by means of this piece 
of wood shove in small masses of absorbent cotton, carry- 
ing as much as possible of the arsenic paste. These wads 



150 VETERINARY STUDIES 

of cotton are placed quite deep in the substance of the 
tumor. If the stick is smooth enough, it will usually draw 
out and leave the cotton ; if not, the cotton can be shoved 
off the end by the use of another small stick. From two 
to six of these pieces of cotton are inserted into the cavity. 
Within a few days the tumor swells considerably. Later 
on a large surface seems to become insensitive, the tissues 
having been destroyed by the arsenic. Finally this dead 
mass separates and sloughs out. 

The time required for the complete removal in this way 
varies from six to ten weeks, but this operation has the ad- 
vantage of requiring but one treatment. This method is of 
course applicable in cases where only soft tissues are dis- 
eased. The writer has tried this method with satisfactory 
results; the only objection, and that seemed to be quite a 
serious one, was that so much time was required for com- 
plete removal. It should not be forgotten that while the 
slough is separating, the wound may become infected with 
maggots. 

Internal medication. — This treatment is by the internal 
use of iodide of potash, which is given by the mouth either 
as a drench or dissolved in the drinking water. Very many 
cases may be treated with a good prospect of success in this 
way. 

The dose limit is about one fourth dram per one hundred 
pounds live weight. Each dose is dissolved in from one 
half to a pint of water and given as a drench or dissolved in 
the drinking water. This dose is given once daily until the 
animal seems to get off feed and discharges freely from the 
eyes and nose, indicating something of a catarrhal disturb- 
ance of these mucous membranes. These conditions indi- 
cate that the treatment should be discontinued for three or 
four daj^s. During this period a mild cathartic of epsom 
salts should be given, about one pound to 1000 pounds live 
weight. This should be dissolved in water and given as a 
drench. The iodide treatment may then be continued for 
another period of six to ten days, when it may be necessary 



ACTINOMYCOSIS OR LUMPY JAW 151 

to discontinue again and give another dose of epsom salts. 
Treatment should be continued until the tumor is reduced 
to about one third of its original size; it may then be dis- 
continued. 

The time required for successful treatment in suitable 
cases varies from four to seven weeks. It is not advisable 
to undertake the treatment of any case where there is very 
great bony enlargement, or where there is reason to suppose 
that there is a very serious disease of the bony structure. 



LECTURE XXXII 

ANTHRAX' 

History. — One of the oldest diseases known to medical 

science. 

Distribution. — Almost world-wide. In the United States 
anthrax is sporadic in the North, East, and West; but in 
the South, more particularly in parts of the Lower Mis- 
sissippi Valley and along the coast of the Mexican Gulf, it 
seems to be enzootic. 

Animals affected. — All of the domestic farm animals are 
more or less susceptible to anthrax. The disease is trans- 
missible, and very fatal to human beings, chiefly by inocu- 
lation, but may be conveyed by means of food or water, 
or through the inhalation of dried spores, which afterwards 
develop into the rod-shaped organisms in the blood. 

Cause. — Anthrax is caused by a microscopic rod-shaped 
organism or germ, the Bacterium anthracis. The rod stage 
of the organism is found in living blood, immediately after 
death, while the spore stage occurs outside of the body. 
Some authorities claim that this germ may, under certain 
conditions, live upon decaying vegetable matter outside of 
the body. The rod is more easily destroyed than is the 
spore. Where conditions are favorable, the spore may re- 
tain its vitality in surface soil, manure, in infected feed- 
stuffs, blood, hides, hair, and wool of anthrax victims for 
long periods, and be capable of causing fresh outbreaks. 

Modes of infection. 

(1) By the respiratory tract. — Dried spores may be in- 
haled and reach the general circulation by way of the 

1 This lecture contributed by Dr. W. H. Dalrymple, of Louisiana. 

152 



ANTHRAX 153 

capillaries of the lungs. Human beings following certain 
occupations, as wool sorting, mattress making, etc., obtain 
infection in this way more often than do the lower animals. 
(2) By the skin. — When infection is introduced through 
the skin, there results the condition known as external an- 
thrax, carbuncular disease, inoculation anthrax, or malig- 
nant pustule. This may be occasioned by insects, especially 
the blood-sucking varieties, as the different horse or gad 
flies (Tahanidoe) ; probably, also, by some varieties of the 
mosquito. The infection may come ^ 

through wounds made by infected 



instruments or utensils ; or by wounds —•———.———— 
comins; in contact with virulent ma- Fig^52. — b a cte rium 

^ _ (Bacillus) Anthracis. 

terial. In the Lower Mississippi Val- (m. h. r.) 

ley the external form occurs very' ^J^^ ^p^^^^^ ^^^^^ «^ ^^- 
frequently, and some outbreaks ex- 
tend over considerable territory, among horses and mules, 
on account of the vast numbers of horseflies during the 
summer months. 

(3) By the digestive tract. — The internal, or intestinal, form 
of anthrax is generally produced through taking the virus in 
contaminated food or water. 

Methods of introduction and spread. — Anthrax may be 
introduced by imported hides, hair, wool, etc., from foreign 
countries infected with anthrax. Fertilizing materials 
manufactured from animals affected with the disease may 
be a source of infection. Running water may become con- 
taminated and spread infection along its course. The refuse 
water from tanneries has been known to disseminate infec- 
tion from anthrax hides. The wind may sometimes be re- 
sponsible for the conveyance of dried anthrax spores. In- 
sects, after feeding upon infected blood and tissues, may 
transmit the virus to healthy animals at a distance through 
fresh wounds or sores, or by puncturing the skin. Insects 
may probably, also, infect food materials in troughs and 
mangers, by conveying virulent matter on their bodies and 
feet. Carrion birds, through the medium of their excre- 



154 VETERINARY STUDIES 

meiit or soiled feet, may infect pastures on which they ahght. 
Carnivorous and omnivorous animals, as dogs and hogs, 
running at large, after feeding upon anthrax carcasses, may 
carry away virulent blood on their feet; and if these ani- 
mals die themselves, they become fresh centers of the 
disease. 

Foodstuffs, as pastures, and commercial feeding materials, 
such as the cereal grains and their by-products, hay, etc., 
raised upon lands infected with anthrax spores, may carry 
those spores and spread the disease. Human beings com- 
ing in contact with virulent anthrax material, and having 
their clothes, shoes, hands, etc., soiled thereby, may easily 
spread the disease to animals. Neglect to properly dispose 
of anthrax carcasses is, perhaps, the factor most responsible 
for the continuance and spread of anthrax. 

Period of incubation. — The time that elapses between in- 
fection and symptoms depends upon the method of infection 
and amount of infective material introduced, and may 
range from a very few hours to several days. 

Symptoms. 

Pulmonary anthrax. — This form is probably not of fre- 
quent occurrence in the lower animals. Dried spores may, 
however, be inhaled from infected hay, whole or crushed 
grains, etc. There are: suddenness of attack; elevation of 
temperature, 104-108 degrees F. ; lack of appetite; difficult 
respiration ; redness of visible mucous membranes ; discharge 
of blood from respiratory tract; unsteady action of the 
heart; small and frequent pulse; staggering movements; 
convulsions, and death resulting from asphyxia. This form 
is confined chiefly to the herbivora. 

External or cutaneous anthrax. — There is swelling at point 
or points of inoculation (carbuncle or malignant pustule), 
with considerable local edema (localized watery swelling). 
This is painful and hot at first, but afterwards becomes 
cold and insensitive. If inoculations have been made by 
insects, the carbuncles may be numerous over different 



ANTHRAX 155 

parts of the body. The swelhngs extend in the connective 
tissue along the course of the lymph vessels and glands. 

This form is seen most frequently in the thinner-skinned 
herbivora — horse, mule, etc. 

Internal anthrax. — There is sudden seizure, great depres- 
sion, and prostration ; rapid elevation of temperature ; stupor ; 
muscular weakness and twitchings; vertigo; hurried respi- 
rations; increased heart action, the organ beating tumul- 
tuously; visible mucous membranes, dark red or a bluish 
red color; sometimes the coloring matter of the blood passes 
in the urine. This form usually terminates fatally. 

The horse, ass, and mule may exhibit symptoms of internal 
anthrax without visible external swellings when the virus 
has been taken into the body with food or water. 

In cattle the internal or acute anthrax is most frequently 
seen, and without external localized swellings. Swellings 
are, however, sometimes observed, either as the result of 
inoculation or during the course of the acute attack. 

In the hog the external manifestations are usually con- 
fined to the throat; and there are generally other symp- 
toms of a specific fever present. As a rule, death takes 
place from asphyxia. The hog becomes infected from eat- 
ing anthrax carcasses; and the disease is most frequent in 
this animal during epizootics. 

Poultry. — There is difference of opinion with regard to 
the susceptibility of poultry, on account of their normally 
high temperature, which, it is claimed, is unfavorable to 
the development of the anthrax organism. 

Course of the disease. — In isolated cases, in limited out- 
breaks, and in the early part of an epizootic, the course of 
the disease is usually very acute and rapid; while, toward 
the termination of an outbreak, anthrax seems much less 
fatal, many of the affected animals recovering. Or, in 
other words, the virulence of the disease seems to become 
weakened toward the end of an outbreak. 

Examination post mortem. — On account of the danger^to 
the operator, and of spreading the disease, through the in- 



156 VETERINARY STUDIES 

fectivity of the bloody post-mortem examination of an an- 
thrax carcass is dangerous^ and is not recommended^ except 
when undertaken by an expert familiar with the possible 
untoward consequences. 

Diagnosis. — This is safest and most reliable by micro- 
scopic examination of a small quantity of blood from the 
extremities (ear of larger animals, or a foot of the smaller), 
or by inoculation of the small susceptible animals (guinea 
pig) with anthrax blood, and subsequent microscopic ex- 
amination of the blood of inoculated cadaver. 

Treatment. 

Therapeutic. — Internally, coal-tar products have been rec- 
ommended. Externally, good results have been reported 
from injecting the carbuncles (swellings) with a 5 per cent 
watery solution of pure carbolic acid, or the requisite 
strength of some other effective germicide. 

Preventive. — Vaccination by the Pasteur method may 
be practiced annually in anthrax districts, or in sporadic 
outbreaks, as required. Prevention in this way is very 
important. 

There should be cremation of carcasses; thorough disin- 
fection of premises (stables, sheds, yards, etc.); drainage 
and cultivation of infected lands; destruction of horse- 
flies, mosquitoes, etc.; drainage of pools and stagnant 
water where these insects breed or frequent; and effective 
live-stock sanitary legislation. 



LECTURE XXXIII 

SYMPTOMATIC ANTHRAX 

This disease is also known as blackleg, black quarter, etc. 

Definition. — A fatal infectious and enzootic disease of 
thrifty young cattle. It is apt to appear year after year 
on certain pastures or along certain valleys. Cattle over 
two years of age are not usually affected. 

Cause. — A short spore-forming bacillus {Bacillus Chau- 
voei). This germ is very resistant, being able to remain 
virulent for years — under favorable conditions. Infection 
is usually made by inoculation, either through the skin or 
mucous membranes ; more commonly through the former. 

Symptoms. — Local and general. 

Local symptoms. — There is usually a pronounced swell- 
ing involving either the front or hind quarter. This swell- 
ing is characterized by crepitation as one passes the hand 
over it^ due to an accumulation of gas in the loose subcu- 
taneous tissues. The swelling does not extend below the 
hock or knee. An incision into the swelling reveals the 
presence of dark, frothy blood, with peculiar acetone odor. 
This swelling is not invariable. Some cases, especially 
those which appear at the beginning of the outbreak and 
die very suddenly, may not show the characteristic swelling. 

Constitutional symptoms'. — The constitutional symptoms 
are usually acute and develop rapidly. The animal is dull, 
without appetite. It shows high fever and marked debility. 
The constitutional symptoms may last from one to three 
days, and the case usually terminates fatally. The fever 
may reach 106 or even 107 F. There is lameness in those 
cases which show local swellings of the front or hind quarters. 

Examination post mortem. — This reveals a tumor filled 

157 



158 VETERINARY STUDIES 

with dark^ frothy blood with fetid odor and more or less 
gas. The spleen is normal, and blood from the general cir- 
culation is also apparently normal, clotting readily on ex- 
posure to air. In these features of normal spleen, normally 
clotting blood, and gas-filled tumor, this disease differs from 
true anthrax. 

Prevention. — iVs soon as the disease appears cattle under 
two years of age should be promptly changed to another 
and preferably higher pasture. If the young cattle have 
been on dry food, then this should be changed. 

Vaccination is now conceded to be very satisfactory and 
thoroughly practical. There are a number of commercial 
blackleg vaccines on the market that are quite reliable. 
The Federal Bureau of Animal Industry is supplying what 
is known as the government blackleg vaccine. This vac- 
cine is quite satisfactory. Method of vaccination depends 
upon the kind of vaccine used. Directions usually ac- 
company each shipment from any of the reliable makers. 

VACCINATION 

The vaccine. — The Bureau or Government Vaccine con- 
sists of a brownish powder furnished in packets of ten and 
twenty-five doses each, made from the muscle of animals 
affected with blackleg. It is prepared by drying the muscle, 
grinding and heating to a temperature which lowers their 
virulence but does not destroy the bacilli. 

Preparation. — The needed outfit consists of a graduated 
hypodermic syringe of about 5 c.c. capacity and preferably 
with rubber or asbestos valve; rather short, stout needles 
of good caliber, and sharp; a small mortar and pestle, 
absorbent cotton for filtering, and a measure graduated 
for cubic centimeters. 

All these must be sterilized by boiling or otherwise before 
using. The vaccine is prepared for use by emptying a 
given number of doses into the mortar, adding a few drops 
of boiled and cooled water, and thoroughly grinding. Then 



SYMPTOMATIC ANTHRAX 159 

add as many cubic centimeters of boiled water (cooled) as 
there were doses of vaccine. This is well mixed and fil- 
tered in the funnel through loosely packed cotton. The 
filtered liquid is used for the vaccination. 

The injection is made by the hypodermic syringe on the 
side of the neck or back of the shoulder. 

Dose. — The dose is 1 c.c. for yearlings and somewhat 
smaller for younger animals^ down to .5 c.c. for calves. 

Proper subjects. — It is not usually necessary to vacci- 
nate calves under six months nor over two years. If calves 
under six months are vaccinated, they may require re- 
vaccination next season. Vaccination should be given a 
few weeks before the disease usually appears, as the disease 
appears at approximately the same time each year in a 
neighborhood. 

Vaccination should not be given to calves that are weak 
from disease or ill health, nor at the same time with or soon 
after any surgical operation like castration. There should 
be at least an interval of ten days after the latter operation. 

Calves that are accustomed to being handled may be 
vaccinated standing. Those that are wild must usually be 
thrown or confined in a chute. 

Treatment. — Medical treatment for this disease is not 
considered satisfactory or, as a rule, worth while. Preven- 
tion by vaccination is easily applied, inexpensive, and 
usually satisfactory. 



LECTURE XXXIV 



FOOT ROT 



This is a very old and familiar disease. It is especially 
prevalent among sheep on soft^ wet pastures, but some- 
times prevails under conditions of extreme drought. Some 
outbreaks are infectious. There are other cases which 
appear similar upon hasty examination, but are evidently 
not infectious. 

General symptoms. — This disease usually affects the feet 
and produces lameness, perhaps one forefoot at first, be- 
tween and above the claws. 
There is a discharge, with 
very offensive odor, and 
the hoof itself becomes 
rotten in places. Loose 
pieces are detached, and 
the sole may be affected 
the same way. The sensi- 
tive parts may be exposed 
in very severe cases, with 
a development of profuse 
granulations. The skin 
above and between the hoofs is red, tender, and swollen. 
The animal is lame and of course unthrifty. The disease 
prevails more especially in late summer. 

Differential diagnosis. — It is necessary to distinguish 
between infectious foot rot and a quite different disease 
which we know as ^^foot-and-mouth disease." Foot rot 
begins in the skin between the claws, or above the crown 
of the foot, and soon involves the sole. It then spreads 
both as to surface and depth, involving the deeper struc- 

160 




Fig. 53. — Foot Rot of Sheep. 
A plain case. 



FOOT ROT 161 

tures of the foot. Foot-and-mouth disease begins in an in- 
flammation of the skin between the claws or just above the 
hoofs. This becomes red, then small vesicles develop which 
rupture and then dry. Foot rot is a disease especially of 
horn tissue. In foot-and-mouth disease the whole hoof 
may loosen at the crown, the inflammation involving es- 
pecially the skin at the crown and the sensitive parts under 
the wall and above the sole. In foot rot the horn is dis- 
eased and separates in pieces. Foot-and-mouth disease 
affects several feet and perhaps the mouth and udder also 
— simultaneously. Foot rot usually affects one foot at 
first, and there is little or no fever in common cases, whereas 
in foot-and-mouth disease the fever is characteristic. 

Foot rot develops slowly, the animals usually eating 
fairly well, which is not the case with foot-and-mouth disease. 

Foot-and-mouth disease spreads readily to cattle and 
swine. Foot rot does not so spread. 

Simple foot rot. — Causes : This is a disease of the horny 
parts, often due to overgrowth or injury, either one of 
which may result in a laminitis, and so result seriously for 
the foot. Similar conditions may account for the develop- 
ment of a considerable number of cases, but this disease 
does not spread from one animal to another as does the in- 
fectious type. Some cases are apparently due to the 
chafing action of rough, wet, and coarse grasses between 
the claws. This may be very serious in a few cases, but 
is not a disease of general importance. Moisture seems to 
bear an important relation to the development of this type 
of the disease. 

Treatment. — Clean thoroughly between the toes; pare 
away all diseased horn and remove the loosened pieces. 
The hoof, if grown out of shape, must be trimmed to normal 
proportion. Excessive granulations must be cut away or 
removed by actual cautery, and be repressed by astringent 
measures or pressure bandages. Pledgets of tow may be 
dipped in tar and applied over the granulations, so as to 
bring pressure at the right point. These patients should be 



162 VETERINARY STUDIES 

kept upon clean, dry footing, and serious cases should be 
taken up and kept in the yard or in dry stables. For astrin- 
gent dressing we may use tincture of iron, varying from 
full strength to one to four, dissolved in water. Four per 
cent carbolized tar makes a nice application for cleansing 
and disinfecting, and keeps out dirt. The medical treat- 
ment, particularly the astringent, should be very carefully 
applied, especially into the crevices and deeper recesses. 

Treating whole flock. — It is frequently advisable to treat 
a whole flock in a general way; in that case the flock may 
be driven through a large pan containing a solution of 
copper sulphate about four inches deep; the animals should 
be forced to remain in the pan for several minutes, so as to 
insure good treatment. This solution should be made up 
dissolved in water in the proportion of one to two pounds 
per gallon of water. 

Prevention. — Separate diseased animals from the healthy 
ones, and bear in mind that either very wet or very dry 
pastures may be favorable to the development of this dis- 
ease. Hoofs should be kept pared to reasonable propor- 
tions. Cases of foot rot should not be neglected in the 
earlier and simpler stages, for they are much easier treated 
then. They may be infectious, and careful treatment and 
attention may avoid a general outbreak. 

FOUL FOOT 

Definition. — A disease of cattle somewhat resembling foot 
rot of sheep and apparently infectious in some outbreaks. 

Treatment. — Trim off diseased horn freely. It is some- 
times advisable in the early inflammatory stages to poultice 
with bran or oil meal, using powdered charcoal quite freely 
in the poultice. For mild cases, white lotion may be used 
once daily; for more serious cases use 10 per cent creolin 
in glycerine once a day for two or three days, then reduce 
to a 5 per cent solution and use every other day for a week 
or two — as necessary. 



FOOT ROT 163 

It is sometimes advisable to use a roll of oakum soaked 
in tar, pressed well up between the toes, and held in place 
by a tar bandage around the foot. In cases where new 
tissue seems to grow too rapidly, it may be repressed by 
means of small pads of oakum or tow, soaked with tar and 
bandaged firmly over the part that needs checking. 

For astringent effect upon the granulations, tincture 
chloride of iron, full strength or diluted to one fourth with 
water, may bemused. Four per cent carbolic acid in tar is 
very useful, especially as it tends to keep out dirt and for- 
eign matter. 



LECTURE XXXV 
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE 

Definition. — A very contagious disease, chiefly of rumi- 
nant animals and swine. Some outbreaks are much more 
virulent than others, but an outbreak of this disease is 
always a serious matter for the o.wner, even though no 
animals die, and a very serious matter for the public in 
general. One attack does not give immunity; on the con- 
trary, this disease is apt to recur at comparatively short 
intervals. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are here given for cattle. 
Sheep and swine show in general similar symptoms. 

This disease develops in from three to five days after ex- 
posure. Affected cattle are first noticed to be sluggish. 
They shiver, and later on they are stiff and lame. There is 
profuse flow of the saliva with frequent swallowing motions 
and smacking of the lips. The peculiar lesions of the foot- 
and-mouth disease are vesicles or small blisters affecting 
the mouth, the skin above and between the hoofs, and 
over the udder and teats. These vesicles soon break and 
bleed, leaving raw surfaces which as a rule heal, but some- 
times remain as rather chronic ulcers. The skin and super- 
ficial tissues around the hoofs become intensely inflamed 
and swollen. The stomach is also involved; affected ani- 
mals lose weight; and the milk flow is checked. It should 
be remembered that the symptoms vary greatly in virulence 
in different animals and different outbreaks. One patient 
does not usually show all these symptoms. Affected ani- 
mals are very much inclined to lie down by reason of the 
sore feet. This disease is not ordinarily fatal, but causes 
very serious loss in the checked milk flow, and prolonged, 

164 



FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE 165 

unthrifty condition, and seriously diseased feet. There is 
a marked fever highest just before the eruption appears. 
Active symptoms of the disease last from eight to fourteen 
days, and animals usually recover within about three weeks. 
The disease of the skin around the hoofs often follows the 
mouth symptoms, but the two may occur together. When 
the disease affects sheep and swine, it is apt to involve 
especially the feet. 

Dissemination. — The infecting virus is present in yards, 
stables, carts, and on the food or feeding utensils. Even a 
road over which diseased animals may have passed may be 
infectious. This disease may be disseminated in an in- 
definite number of ways, and is recognized as one of the 
most easily scattered of the infectious diseases. The in- 
fectious material is apparently present in the discharge 
from the vesicles, in the saliva, milk, urine, manure, expired 
air, and perspiration. The infection is probably obtained 
through the respiratory or digestive organs. 

Prevention. — The prevention of this disease is simply 
the prevention of infection. This country was supposed to 
be free from this disease until 1902, when it appeared in 
several of the New England states. Infected premises that 
have not been disinfected may remain infectious for an 
undetermined period. Until we have more positive in- 
formation on this point we may say that it would hardly 
be safe to risk exposure in less than a year unless the premises 
can be thoroughly disinfected. 

This disease spreads rapidly; it causes heavy losses and 
is difficult to control after it has become widely scattered. 
Any reasonable suspicion of its existence should be promptly 
reported to the local health officer and every possible pre- 
caution taken to prevent spread. 

Treatment. — Simple cleanliness. Most cases will recover 
without treatment in two or three weeks, but in some 
serious cases it is necessary to use astringents and anti- 
septics, for instance, alum water or creolin. This is es- 
pecially for raw and inflamed surfaces. 



LECTURE XXXVI 
GLANDERS 

Definition. — The words ^^ glanders '' and " farcy " both 
refer to the same disease, the latter being commonly used 
for those forms where the skin and external parts are 
especially affected. This disease is serious because it may 
be transmitted to human beings and with almost invariably 
fatal results, and because of great losses among horses. It 
is easily spread among susceptible animals. Obscure cases 
may be highly infectious. 

Susceptible animals. — This disease is practically confined 
to horses, donkeys, and mules. Human beings, sheep, and 
goats are susceptible. Cattle are immune. 

Causes. — A minute rod-shaped germ {Bacillus mallei), 
which must be recognized as the direct and specific cause of 
the disease. Unsanitary conditions and everything which 
lessens the animal vigor may act as predisposing causes. 
The disease is more severe and more rapidly fatal among 
animals which are crowded or overworked. 

Incubation. — This period varies greatly. Different 
authors have given it variously from three to seven days 
in experimental work. In some cases the period of incuba- 
tion is probably considerably longer, especially in natural 
cases. 

SYMPTOMS 

For our purpose, cases of glanders will be divided into 
but two classes, viz. glanders and farc}^ It is generally 
customary to distinguish acute and chronic glanders, also 
acute and chronic farcy, making four types, but acute and 

166 



GLANDERS 



167 



chronic cases of each form differ mainly in severity of symp- 
toms and rapidity of development. 

Glanders. — This form of the disease is characterized in 
general by the development of ulcers on the mucous mem- 
brane of the respiratory 
apparatus; by a peculiar 
discharge from the nose; 
and sometimes by chronic 
cough. Certain glands be- 
tween the branches of the 
lower jaw are affected in 
a peculiar way, becoming 
enlarged, hardened, and 
nodular. 

Acute cases. — When 
the cases are acute, small 
tubercles develop rapidly 
on this mucous membrane, 
and soon change to small 
ulcers, which increase in 
size and even coalesce. 
Thus is developed the 
peculiar ulcer of glanders, 
with its dirty gray base 
and overhanging edges. 

The discharge from these ulcers is quite distinctly viscid. 
Very large ulcers and even ragged gutterlike excavations 
may develop, particularly on the nasal septum. The ulcers 
may heal, leaving light-colored, more or less star-shaped scars. 

The fever may be severe in acute glanders, the tem- 
perature rising rapidly to 105 or even 107, and then be 
quite variable for a few days. There may be also persistent 
chills. 

There is apt to be a development of V-shaped areas of 
lung inflammation in the more acute cases. Occasionally 
there is a partial or apparent recovery from the acute 
symptoms and then the development of a chronic case. 




Fig. 54. — Glanders — Farcy. (M.H.R.) 

A recent case. Note the enlarged leg with- 
out farcy buds. 



168 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



Chronic cases. — If the disease be chronic, then these same 
symptoms in general develop less rapidly. The chronic 
pulmonary form of glanders may be suspected when there 
is a mild; dry cough, especially if such cough be accom- 
panied by debility and 
occurs in a stable where 
an obvious case of glanders 
has been demonstrated. 
When the lungs are much 
affected in chronic cases 
of pulmonary glanders, the 
horse is apt to show symp- 
toms of heaves, and on 
examination post mortem 
there are found numerous 
tubercles, usually showing, 
or easily felt, on the sur- 
face of the lungs. 

A horse may be affected 
with a mild, chronic form 
of the disease and remain 
in good flesh, he vigorous 
and apparently in the best 
of health for years, show- 
ing no marked nasal dis- 
charge or farcy sores, and yet be very actively infectious to 
other horses. 

Chronic cases may also show a chronic nasal discharge,, 
nasal ulcers, and nodular, adherent maxillary glands. 

Farcy. — In the farcy form of glanders the superficial 
connective tissues and lymphatics are especially involved. 

In the acute form, just as with acute glanders, there may 
be very high temperature with local swellings. This swell- 
ing often occurs in one hind leg, with soreness and lameness. 
As the swelling abates, the characteristic nodules, or so- 
called farcy buds, appear. 

The head may swell badly and later farcy sores appear at 




Fig. 55. — Glanders — Farcy. (M.H.R.) 

An old case. Note enlarged leg with old 
farcy buds, healed. 



GLANDERS 



169 




irregular intervals and places. These may heal and leave 
scars — as shown in Figure 56. When farcy buds break 
there is discharged a viscid pus that 
is very characteristic of this disease, 
being clear and quite cohesive. 

The specific symptoms of farcy may 
be summed up as the hud, the ulcer, 
the lymphatic cord, and the charac- 
teristic viscid sticky discharge. 

In the chronic forms we have simi- 
lar histories and symptoms, but the 
latter may be less obvious and less 
rapidl}^ developed. 

Diagnosis. — A positive diagnosis on 
the clinical symptoms may be made 
in many cases, but there are a great 
many cases which cannot be so diag- 
nosed with certainty. In these cases 
we must rely upon the mallein test. 

Mallein test. — This test may be conducted as follows : 
Temperatures are taken at 10 A.M., 2 p.m., and 6 P.M. The 
mallein is then given by hypodermic injection at about 10 
P.M. On the following day temperatures are taken every 
tv/o hours, beginning at 6 A.M. and continuing until 6 or 
even 8 p.m. A rise of two degrees or more above the normal 
range is diagnostic and is determined by comparing the 
temperatures taken on the second day with those taken 
on the first day of test. Such a rise of temperature is 
spoken of as a reaction. Reacting animals usually show a 
prominent and painful swelling at the point of injection. 
Mallein has developed the rather serious fact that there 
are unquestionably a great many cases of glanders which 
are never recognized, some of which are without doubt 
infectious. 

Prevention. — The common methods of spread must be 
borne in mind, and the fact be clearly realized that the germ 
which causes glanders is very easily disseminated. Some 



Fig. 5.6. — Glanders — 
Farcy. (M. H. R.) 

Farcy scars in the face. 
An old case. 



170 VETERINARY STUDIES 

of the more common methods of spreading it are by drink- 
ing water, feed boxes and troughs, hitching racks and posts, 
and, in the large cities, by the pubHc water fountains. Any 
means which serves to bring the virus into direct contact 
with mucous membranes or with the broken skin may be 
sufficient to cause an attack. Pus from the farcy sores 
and the nasal discharge are very virulent. 

Prevention consists in avoiding conditions which may 
bring the virus into contact with the mucous membranes 
or broken skin. It is never safe to purchase or trade, from 
a stranger, a horse that has any nasal discharge or sus- 
picious sores. Stories of having caught cold or having a 
little distemper may usually be suspected, under such cir- 
cumstances. 

Treatment. — It is probable that some cases of glanders 
recover under favorable conditions without treatment, 
especially in the Northwest, but this is a very dangerous 
disease; we have no means of knowing which cases have a 
reasonable probability of recovery; and medical treatment 
by the use of drugs has never seemed to give any satis- 
factory results. For these reasons it is usually conceded by 
veterinarians that treatment of glanders is not justified. 
All cases should be reported to the proper health officers. 



LECTURE XXXVII 
HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA OF CATTLE 

This disease in the West has been rather commonly and 
badly named as cornstalk disease. It is interesting because 
of its many forms; it is interesting because medical treat- 
ment so far as we know is absolutely useless and hopeless. 
We are helpless in the matter of prevention^ because we 
have practically no information as to the method of in- 
fection or method of spread. Those who have had a chance 
to study outbreaks have been quite unable to trace any 
connection between one outbreak and another, or to trace 
a previous history for any given outbreak. This disease is 
worthy of very serious consideration because it is so wide- 
spread and so fatal. It appears suddenly and under all 
sorts of conditions; a number of animals, usually a large 
proportion, die, and the disease disappears as suddenly as it 
came. 

Etiology. — The specific cause of this disease is apparently 
a germ. Bacillus hovisepticus, very similar to the bacillus of 
swine plague. How this microorganism spreads or how it 
gains entrance into the animal body is not known, but at 
present it is supposed that the entrance may be effected by 
inoculation, or through the respiratory or the alimentary 
mucous membrane. 

History and development. — The onset is usually sudden 
and unexpected, and yet in some outbreaks the onset is 
quite slow and the cases are distinctly chronic. 

Season and climatic conditions apparently have nothing 
to do with the prevalence, virulence, or disappearance of 
this disease. The mortality is usually high. 

171 



172 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



Symptoms. — In the writer's experience the temperatures 
have been often normal or subnormal, except in cases 
where the temperature rose rapidly just before death. 

Local changes which correspond to the tumors of anthrax 
and symptomatic anthrax are very limited or wanting. 

The urine in many cases has been scanty or blood-stained, 
and this is also true of the bowel discharges. 

Examination post mortem. — This is very much more 
definite and satisfactory. The blood is apparently normal. 




Fig. 57. — Hemorrhagic Septicemia. (M.H.R.) 
Hemorrhages (dark spots) on peritoneal surface of intestine. 



Subcutaneous hemorrhages are common and vary greatly 
in size and intensity; in some cases they are large and the 
hemorrhagic condition is marked. In other cases the 
hemorrhages are minute, scattered, and few in number. 
The hemorrhages may appear almost anywhere in the sub- 
cutaneous tissues, or involve any of the internal organs. 
The spleen is not enlarged, but there may be hemorrhages 
on the surface. The hemorrhages usually have sharply 
defined borders and are easily recognized as hemorrhages. 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA OF CATTLE 



173 



The serous membranes frequently show small hemorrhagic 
areas^ and the heart, especially its auricles, is often intensely 
hemorrhagic. 

Summary. — We may summarize the symptoms as fol- 
lows: In acute cases the disease appears suddenly; the 
case develops very rapidly and terminates fatally. The 
ante-mortem symptoms are very unsatisfactory from a 
diagnostic standpoint. The post-mortem symptoms are 
definite and as a rule easily recognized, and consist of more 
or less extensive hemorrhages which are sharply defined 
when they appear upon the surfaces of the viscera and 
serous membranes. 

MENINGEAL TYPE 

History. — Cows which have given a normal flow of milk 
in the morning may give practically none in the evening. 
Otherwise they are appar- h 

ently normal. They may be 
slightly ailing the next morn- 
ing, but showing little aside 
from dullness. There may 
be no rise of temperature ; 
no evidence of pain or dis- 
comfort. When they at- 
tempt to walk, the gait is 
more or less irregular, re- 
sembling very much the 
gait of milk fever in its early 
stage. This is of course 
more marked in some than 
in others. 

Symptoms. — The symp- 
toms^ during the first 24 to iJ^ToTtS^ ^'''''™^^ 
36 hours are not marked, 

except as to continued dullness, staggering gait, and cold 
extremities. The skin is harsh and lacking in sensation. 

1 In case of young calves, the cases may be characterized by profound 
nervous disturbance very early in their histories. 




Fig. 58. — Hemorrhagic Septicemia. 
(M. H. R.) 



174 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



This loss of skin sensation begins at the posterior extremi- 
ties and gradually extends forward. The milk flow is 
^checked. 

After 24 to 36 hours, diarrhea appears, the discharges 
being dark and thin with very disagreeable odor. Nervous 
symptoms gradually develop and are quite uniform. 




Fig. 59. — Hemorrhagic Septicemia. (M. H. R.) 
Hemorrhages on costal pleura. 

The symptoms during this second period are those which 
belong to a gradually developing cerebro-spinal meningitis. 
The inability to walk naturally is continued, the gait being 
irregular and weak. The neck is often bent to one side, 
and the muscles, particularly of the face and neck, spas- 
modically contracted. During this period the animals are 
still quiet, moving around very little; but the eyes show a 
wild, unnatural expression. During this period the animals 
may commence to chew in a nervous and very persistent 
manner, with more or less profuse flow of saliva. The 
temperatures may remain normal or subnormal. 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA OF CATTLE 



175 



Later^ there appears a third fairly distinct period of in- 
tense nervous activity. The eyes continue to grow more 
wild and unnatural; the grinding of the jaws more active 
and more constant; the convulsions of face and neck 
muscles become more intense; then gradually a period of 
intense restlessness and activity, and death ends the 
scene. 

Post-mortem symptoms. — Meningitis involving the spinal 
cord or brain or both is plainly evident. In addition to this 




Fig. 60. — Hemorrhagic Septicemia. (M. H. R.) 
Meningeal type. Cow stupid. Early stage. 



there are hemorrhages involving the subcutaneous tissues, 
and lymphatic glands in various portions of the body; also 
involving the pleurae, pericardium, and surface of various 
internal organs, as in the usual type of the disease. 

A pecuhar fact which appears in connection with these 
meningeal type cases is that the animals which are ap- 
parently most seriously sick early in their histories are 
often the cases which Hve longest, whereas the apparently 
milder cases die very quickly and very unexpectedly. 



176 VETERINARY STUDIES 

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 

It is very important to distinguish between blackleg and 
hemorrhagic septicaemia, because, so far as our present 
knowledge extends, we are helpless in the presence of 
hemorrhagic septicaemia. We have no vaccine either pre- 
ventive or curative, and no medical treatment; whereas 
blackleg can be easily and cheaply prevented by vaccination. 

In both diseases, death is liable to occur very suddenly, 
but blackleg commonly affects only cattle under two years 
of age, whereas hemorrhagic septicaemia affects all ages in- 
discriminately. High temperatures are characteristic of 
blackleg, especially early in the history of the cases, whereas, 
in hemorrhagic septicaemia, the temperature is often normal 
or subnormal until near death, and then in some cases 
rises very rapidly. A pronounced swelling of the front or 
hind quarter is rather characteristic of blackleg, although 
in some cases which die very suddenly there may be no 
noticeable swelling. These cases usually occur early in the 
history of the outbreak of blackleg, and following them 
there are other cases which show the characteristic swellings 
of blackleg. Swellings of this kind are not characteristic 
of hemorrhagic septicaemia, and when present at all are small. 

Blood taken from a blackleg tumor is dark, frothy, and 
with peculiar odor, whereas blood taken from a case of 
hemorrhagic septicaemia is apparently normal. It should 
be noted that this is also true of blood taken from general 
circulation in the cases of blackleg. 

A diagnosis between these two diseases may, as a rule, 
be quite easily made by examination post mortem. Here 
we have in a case of hemorrhagic septicaemia the charac- 
teristic hemorrhages which appear as blood-stained or 
bruise-like areas under the skin; and sharply defined blood- 
stained spots on the internal organs or the lining membranes 
of the chest and abdomen. These hemorrhages are not at 
all characteristic of blackleg. On skinning animals affected 
with blackleg, crepitating, gas-filled tumors of blackleg 
are usually found, which are characteristic of that disease. 
These are not found in hemorrhagic septicaemia. 



HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA OF CATTLE 



177 



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LECTURE XXXVIII 
HOG CHOLERA 

Definition. — The term ^^hog cholera^' should obviously 
be limited^ and refer to a single specific disease which can 
be clearly described. To be considered hog cholera the 
disease should be recognized as an infectious disease for 
swine. It must be infectious by pen exposure, and an 
attack followed by recovery must give immunity. The 
blood from a diseased hog should be virulent and capable 
of reproducing the disease, the living animal should show 
the symptoms later described, and the carcass of the dead 
animal should show the symptoms as given under autopsy. 

Variations in virulence. ■ — Outbreaks of hog cholera vary 
greatly in virulence. In some epidemics the virulence is 
marked, and the hogs die quickly; in other epidemics the 
majority of the cases assume the chronic type; the hogs 
do not die so quickly, and the percentage of loss is not so 
great. 

Various gradations may appear between epidemics of the 
utmost virulence and those of the milder type. 

Swill-barrel cholera. — The fact must not be lost sight of, 
in this connection, that outbreaks of swine disease appear 
and alarm neighborhoods when the trouble is due to local 
causes. They are usually diseases of the digestive appa- 
ratus, and due to errors in feeding. This trouble is some- 
times due to filthy swill undergoing bacterial changes in 
dirty barrels. Sometimes it is due to strong alkali soaps in 
swill. All the patients become diseased from the same 
source and in the same way, but the disease does not spread. 
Several neighbors may make the same mistake at the same 
time and get similarly bad results. 

178 



HOG CHOLERA 



179 



Early symptoms. — When this disease appears the hair 
becomes harsh and dry, the eyes may be watery, and loco- 
motion becomes weak and irregular, with imperfect control 
of the hind legs. The skin around the flanks and fore legs 
and abdomen may become purple ; the skin of the ears fre- 
quently becomes much inflamed, and, if the hog hves for 
several days, may assume a scabby appearance. Some- 
times the tips of the ears slough off. The sick hogs separate 
themselves from the rest of the herd, are disposed to hide 




Fig. 61. — Hog Cholera. {M. H. R.) 

Subcutaneous hemorrhages resembling those of hemorrhagic septicaemia. Note 
the dark spots. 

in sheltered places, and seem but little inclined to move 
about. There is usually a loss of appetite, although in 
some very acute cases the appetite may remain good until 
the end. Chronic cases lose flesh rapidly, and sometimes 
show extreme disturbance of the nervous system, exhibited 
in partial or complete paralysis of the hind parts, or extreme 
nervousness. The cough is usually short and hacking. 
Occasionally constipation appears among the earliest symp- 
toms, but is usually not noticed ; later diarrhea appears. 
In some of the very acute cases which appear at the begin- 
ning of an outbreak the animals die very suddenly — some- 
times before the owner realizes that they are sick. Later 
in the history of the disease, as it appears in a herd, the 
cases tend to assume a more chronic type. 

Sometimes quite large portions of skin and underlying 
muscular tissue die and slough off, leaving large sores. This 



180 



VETERINARY STUDIES 




Fig. 62. — Hog Cholera. 
(M. H. R.) 



appears more commonly, perhaps, around the neck, head, 

and back than elsewhere. 

Autopsy. — The skin on exposed parts of the body where 

the hair is thin, like the flanks and inside of the fore legs 

and thighs, may be deep red 
or purple. Blood-stained spots 
may be usually found in the 
fatty tissue under the skin and 
on the internal organs. The 
lungs may show evidences of 
pneumonia. The lymphatic 
glands in the mesentery and 
elsewhere appear deeply con- 
gested or inflamed. 

When the large intestine is 
,, , , ,. split open, dark spots, more or 

Hemorrhages (dark spots) on dia- 
phragm. Hemorrhages are charac- leSS blood-staiued, Or eveu clotS 

*^"^*'''- of blood, are to be seen upon 

the lining membrane when the disease has been of the 
very acute type. The more chronic cases show peculiar 
and very characteristic ulcers in the lining membrane of 
the large intestine, and they are usually more numerous 
near the caecum or blind pouch. These ulcers are irregular 
in outline, with yellowish or dark centers, and frequently 
appear as being raised above the surface. Small ulcers may 
also be seen in the back part of the mouth and in the 
throat. 

The spleen is frequently enlarged, and darker in color 
than natural. Small bright red spots are found on the sur- 
face or through the deeper structure of the kidneys. 

In some cases the lung lesions are most prominent. The 
skin may show the same purple spots and areas as in hog 
cholera. The lungs show scattered and sharply defined 
areas, which are dark red in color, and solid, like liver. The 
lining membrane of the chest may be diseased; but it is 
not uniformly so, and, when this occurs, it usually follows 
disease of the lung tissue. 



HOG CHOLERA 



181 



The cause. — We must not forget that hog cholera is an 
infectious disease, and that it has its prime origin in a 
living germ. This germ is probably so small as to be in- 
visible with our best microscopes and capable of passing 
through a laboratory germ filter. Simple conditions of 
keep and feed have much to do with making the animals 




Fig. 63.— Hog Cholera. (M.H.R.) 

Large intestine ; mucous membrane showing general distribution of typical ulcers. 
I, Ileum ; C, caecum or blind pouch. 



susceptible, but mere matters of food and surroundings can- 
not serve as first cause of hog cholera. The predisposing 
factors in the causation of this disease must be given due 
consideration, but the most important thing to remember is 
that it is due to a living germ, that it never appears without 
infection, and that this germ may be carried from one place 
to another. If the hog is fed exclusively on corn diet, or 
from a swill barrel that has been used for years and never 
scalded or allowed to dry in the sun; if it is kept shut up in 
dark, damp, and perhaps filthy pens, it will not be able to 



182 VETERINARY STUDIES 

resist any disease as would one kept under more favorable 
conditions. 

It is evident to all who have given the subject careful 
attention that swine hygiene should receive far more atten- 
tion in the future than it has had in the past, and that 
here there is a large field for scientific study. Good diges- 
tion aids in the destruction of bacteria in the food, while 
congestion or catarrhal inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane of stomach may result in a smaller percentage of acid 
in the gastric juice, and thus the germ-destroying power of 
this fluid be diminished. Tissue vitality must be regarded 
as a very important factor in increasing the disease-resisting 
power of any animal. The laws of hygiene cannot be neg- 
lected without rendering animals more susceptible to dis- 
ease. 

How scattered. — The germs of this disease may be car- 
ried from place to place in any way that fine particles of 
dust may be carried, e.g. upon shoes, or by wagons, or by 
driving stock back and forth over an infected area; or they 
may be scattered by driving or transporting infected hogs 
along the public highways. Dogs are frequent carriers of 
this disease. Running streams and shallow lakes are also 
serious factors in the spread of the germs. Bowel dis- 
charges are very important sources of infection, and, if the 
yards or pens drain into streams or lakes, these become 
carriers of the infection. Hogs that have died of hog cholera, 
are sometimes thrown into streams or buried in the sand 
near the edge of a stream or lake, thus infecting the water. 

Hog cholera germs may live three months, and possibly 
longer under favorable conditions. They are apparently 
hardy and difficult to destroy. 

When an outbreak appears. — In case there is a suspicious 
disease among hogs in a neighborhood, the matter should 
be reported promptly to health officers, and this first out- 
break should be rigidly quarantined. 

But one man should have the care of a herd of healthy 
hogs, and this man should not be allowed to go where there 



HOG CHOLERA 183 

is a possibility of getting the infection. Neither the owner 
nor any member of his family should go to any farm where 
an infectious swine disease has appeared; nor should any 
one from the farm where such sickness is present be allowed 
to walk about the yards of his neighbors. 

Dogs and other dangerous visitors should be kept away 
from the pens on uninfected farms by a temporary fence of 
woven wire. 

Before a herd becomes infected, it may be desirable to 
divide it into three or four parts, and separate these groups 
widely on different portions of the farm. The owner may 
then lose one group, or even two groups, and still save the 
others, should the disease come his way. 

If hog cholera appears in a herd during the summer or 
fall when the weather is pleasant, it may be desirable to 
turn the hogs out into a large yard or field rather than to 
keep them closely confined in pens or stables, where the 
danger from infection is greatly increased. Larger or 
smaller doses of infection have much to do with determining 
the fatality of the disease. If hogs are allowed to run in 
yards or fields, each hog is exposed to the smallest possible 
amount of infection. Hogs should not be allowed access 
to small ponds or mudholes during the prevalence of any 
suspicious disease among them. Such ponds and mudholes 
become deadly centers of infection. 

If the weather is cool or wet, the herd should be given 
quarters as warm and dry as possible, for with hogs turned 
out to shift for themselves, under such conditions of ex- 
posure, the mortality is apt to be very high. 

It is apparently useless to spend money on medicines in 
the treatment of this disease. Before giving credit to patent 
medicines, one should bear in mind that outbreaks often 
check suddenly without any treatment. 

Experience demonstrates that it is desirable to separate 
the well from the sick animals promptly, and to place the 
well in uninfected sheds, pens, or yards. It is also desirable 
to keep the pens, both where the sick and the healthy hogs 



184 VETERINARY STUDIES 

are confined, thoroughly cleaned and frequently disinfected. 
For this purpose, unslaked lime is quite satisfactory, and it 
is easily applied, as are the better grades of coal-tar disin- 
fectants. 

Hog cholera vaccination. — A new vaccination known 
as the Dorset-Niles method is rapidly becoming available; 
the serum being produced by a number of agricultural ex- 
periment stations and sanitary boards. The method of 
producing this serum is in general as follows: 

A hog that is immune by reason of having passed through 
the disease or which has been vaccinated is given inocula- 
tion of a very large quantity of virulent hog cholera blood. 
After a time his own blood develops property which pro- 
tects other hogs when injected under the skin or into mus- 
cles. This immunizing serum alone produces a prompt but 
temporary immunity, but if a hog so treated be given pen 
exposure with sick hogs, or be given an injection with a 
small quantity of virulent blood (simultaneous vaccination), 
it then becomes permanently immune. In this case it is 
on practically the same basis as an animal that has had 
the natural disease in an outbreak and recovered. There 
are therefore two methods of doing this vaccinating : Serum 
only, which gives prompt, but temporary immunity, and 
simultaneous vaccination, which gives permanent immunity. 
The dose of serum varies according to the weight of the 
hog treated. It is important that the serum should be 
kept unopened and cool until used, and that all precautions 
are taken to insure clean work in vaccinating. 

There are two very useful fields for this vaccine : One 
where owners wish to vaccinate valuable hogs in advance 
of any possible outbreak, or, for example, when going to 
stock shows. The other and perhaps the most important 
is in connection with outbreaks of the disease where vaccine 
can be used to lessen the loss if used early in the outbreak 
and protect surrounding herds and check the outbreak. 

Common mistakes. — It is a mistake to bury hogs that 
have died of hog cholera when the carcasses can be burned, 



HOG CHOLERA 185 

for burning is by far the most efficient means of destroying 
the germs of such diseases. If it is not convenient to burn 
the carcasses, they should be buried under at least four feet 
of earth. 

It is a mistake, and frequently a serious one, for a farmer 
to ship in a lot of strange hogs from unknown stockyards, 
in cars that may have been infected, and to put these with 




JpfiT 



Fig. 64. — Hog Cholera. {M. H. R.) 

Ulcers in mucous membrane of large colon. Bowel split open. View of the 
interior. 

stock hogs already on hand. The mere fact that the hogs 
came from an uninfected district is no argument to the 
contrary, for the car in which they were shipped may have 
recently carried a lot of hog cholera victims. Strange hogs 
should be quarantined for three weeks before putting them 
with hogs already on the place. This gives time for the 
disease to appear in case the new hogs have come from in- 
fected herds, or through infected stockyards, or in infected 
cars. 

It is a mistake to visit your neighbor's hogpens, and 
walk about among the hogs out of mere curiosity, when your 
neighbor has told you that some peculiar sickness has ap- 
peared in his herd. 

It is a mistake to allow the last one or two sick hogs, 
which usually show a very chronic type of the disease, to 
linger for months on the farm. It is a better policy to kill 
such hogs promptly, and have done witH the disease. They 
do not usually become thrifty and profitable feeders for a 
long time after recovery. On the other hand, they may 



186 VETERINARY STUDIES 

remain infectious to the last period of their sickness^ thus 
keeping the yards and pens infected and furnishing a con- 
stant supply of infectious material for fresh outbreaks; 
whereas, if they had been killed, the infectious material 
would soon have been destroyed. 

It is a criminal mistake to throw carcasses into any 
stream, lake, or pond, or to bury them near such body of 
water. 

Suggestion. — It is a very simple matter to quarantine 
an outbreak of hog cholera when it first appears, and it is 
extremely difficult to quarantine the disease after it has 
been scattered over several townships. Quarantine must 
be rigid to be useful. Partial or imperfect quarantine is 
worse than useless. 

Disinfection. — If the disease be genuine hog cholera, it 
is not easily controlled, for the germs may live three and 
perhaps four months, under favorable conditions, in the soil 
and about the buildings. Sometimes the cheapest way to 
disinfect is to burn the old sheds and pens where the hogs 
have been confined. But if these structures are valuable, 
the matter of other means of disinfection is to be considered. 
In this case, corrosive sublimate, dissolved in water in the 
proportion of 7.5 grains to each pint, is a good disinfectant; 
or whitewash that is made by using water that contains 
four per cent of pure carbolic acid may be used instead of 
the corrosive sublimate solution. All bedding and loose 
stuff should be burned. The ground may be disinfected by 
saturating the surface with corrosive sublimate solution, or 
by burning off straw that has been scattered over the sur- 
face, or the danger from infection may be lessened by plow- 
ing the infected area. Sometimes it is more desirable to 
destroy the floors of pens than to attempt to disinfect 
them, but if it is thought desirable to disinfect, they should 
be thoroughly saturated with the 1 : 1000 corrosive subli- 
mate solution, or with boiling water. 



LECTURE XXXIX 
TEXAS OR TICK FEVER' 

Economic importance. — The seriousness of tick fever as a 
disease of cattle and the bearing of this disease upon the 
southern cattle industry was not realized until within a 
few years. To-day we know that it is responsible for the 
death of more cattle throughout the southern states than 
any other half dozen diseases. Even at this time its true 
nature is not generally recognized by the stockmen. 

Names. — This disease passes under a variety of names, 
such as acclimation fever, red water, bloody murrain, dis- 
temper, town-cow disease, hollow horn, hollow tail, etc. 

Causes. — It has been established that the disease is 
caused by an animal parasite, a protozoan, which attacks 
the red corpuscles of the blood. Little or nothing is known 
of the life history of this parasite outside of the blood of 
the affected animal. Its multiplication in the blood is very 
rapid and its effects are very destructive, involving es- 
pecially the red blood corpuscles. It destroys these very 
rapidly. 

Transmission. — So far as known the only natural means 
of transmitting the germ of this disease is the southern cattle 
tick (Boophilus annulatus) .^ Other species of ticks attack 
southern cattle, but this is the most common and is the 
only one responsible for the transmission of the Texas 
Fever germ. 

The ticks do not carry the germs direct from one infected 
animal to another, but the female ticks develop on infected 

1 This lecture contributed by Dr. Tait Butler. 
^ Or B—Bovis (Riley). 

187 



188 VETERINARY STUDIES 

animals and then transmit the germs to their progeny, and 
the young ticks carry the germs to susceptible animals, 
which they may chance to infest. 

Susceptibility. — Bovines alone seem susceptible to the 
disease, although the tick, which carries the infection, occa- 
sionally infests horses and mules. Calves at birth are as a 
rule immune; but tliis immunity is gradually lost until at 
two years of age nearly all are highly susceptible to the 
disease. Cattle reared in the southern states on tick-free 
pastures are as susceptible as those raised in the North. 

Period of incubation. — The disease usually develops in 
from seven to ten days after direct inoculation of a sus- 
ceptible animal with the blood of one infected, or that has 
acquired immunity from a previous attack. When infection 
occurs in the natural way, about the same time usually 
elapses between exposure to tick infestation and the de- 
velopment of the disease. This period is not always uni- 
form, or in some cases no evidences of the disease can be 
detected before fifteen to thirty days after inoculation. 
However, a large percentage of cases develop within ten 
days after inoculation. 

Symptoms. — It is frequently stated that tick fever occurs 
in acute and chronic forms. The chronic form, however, 
usually follows the acute, and appears months after the 
acute attack. These relapses or secondary attacks are not 
uncommon in the late fall and early winter. It is then 
difficult to distinguish them from ordinary debility from 
other causes except by the history of a previous attack or 
by an examination of the blood. 

Fever. — In the acute type of the disease an elevation of 
temperature is usually the first noticeable symptom. A 
temperature of 107 degrees or 108 degrees F. is not un- 
usual, but when it reaches 105 degrees or 106 degrees, other 
symptoms usually become apparent. While there are con- 
siderable fluctuations in temperature, it generally remains 
high during five to seven days and may then drop suddenly 
to normal or below. Many animals die during the extremely 



TEXAS OR TICK FEVER 



189 



high temperature, or, if the temperature, falls, it is only as 
a prelude to death. The period of subnormal temperature 
is a dangerous one, and collapse should be fortified against. 
Otherwise an animal may succumb that might by proper 
treatment be saved. 

Other symptoms. — The patient usually stands apart with 
the head down and back arched. In severe cases, or when 
death approaches, it may lie or 
fall down. The pulse usually 
runs from 80 to 100, and the 
respirations from 50 to 60 per 
minute. In most cases during 
the extremely high tempera- 
tures, the urine is highly 
colored, sometimes becoming of 
port wine color or almost black. 
The red color is merely color- 
ing matter from the red cor- 
puscles, which are rapidly de- 
stroyed by the germs. At first 
the bowels are constipated, but 
later diarrhea is not uncommon. 
The mucous membranes are 
usually pale and sometimes 
shghtly yellow. As death approaches and the symptoms 
become aggravated, the animal usually remains down. 
Occasional periods of excitement, or even convulsions, may 
occur. 

History of the case. — The most important factor in deter- 
mining the diagnosis, next to finding the germs in the 
blood, is the history of the animal and the presence of 
ticks. If the animal has not previously been exposed to 
tick infestation and has recently changed location, or if tick 
infestation has in any way been rendered possible, a search- 
ing examination should be made to ascertain whether ticks 
are really on its body. 

Ticks, where found. — The ticks are most Hkely to be 




Fig. 65. — Texas Fever Tick. 

{Pettit.) 
Female engorged. Boophilus bovis 
(Riley). 



190 VETERINARY STUDIES 

found on the tender parts of the skin^ such as between the 
hind legs, on the escutcheon, on the inside of the elbows, 
or on the brisket, which is most exposed. Since the disease 
may develop within ten days after ticks attack the animal, 
and this time is not sufficient for them to become larger 
than twice the size of a pinhead, it will be readily appre- 
ciated that to find the ticks is not always an easy matter, 
especially if they are not numerous. Other diseases pro- 
ducing blood-colored urine are extremely rare among cattle 
in this country. 

Conclusion. — The presence of the symptoms described 
may therefore be considered as diagnostic, and good evi- 
dence as to the presence of ticks, even though these may 
not be found. 

Post-mortem appearances. — Only in animals that die 
during an acute attack are the changes well marked, and of 
those only the more pronounced will be given. Other 
changes may be seen, but they are often only slight, or 
absent. 

The subcutaneous tissue may be slightly yellow and in- 
filtrated with yellow-colored serum. 

The muscular tissue is frequently pale and flabby, especially 
in chronic cases. 

The spleen, in cases that succumb during the height of or 
just after the subsidence of the fever, is much enlarged and 
dark colored. When held up by one end, the contents of 
the capsule will tend to gravitate to the lower end. When 
cut into it is black, soft, and engorged with blood. 

The liver is enlarged, congested, and usually mottled in 
color, due to bile-injection. The bile is increased in quan- 
tity, dark colored, thick and ropy, sometimes almost semi- 
solid. 

The kidneys are usually engorged and dark, and the 
bladder contains urine varying in color from slightly red to 
almost black. 

Prognosis. — The death rate in calves under six months 
old is extremely low. In cattle a year old it may range 



TEXAS OR TICK FEVER 191 

from ten to twenty-five per cent. In those two years old 
it will probably be from twenty-five to fifty per cent^ and 
in those over two years old from fifty to eighty per cent. 

Treatment. — This usually proves unsatisfactory. The 
results scarcely justify the expense and trouble which it 
entailS; except in very valuable animals. During the first 
stages, when constipation is present, a purgative consisting 
of from one to one and one half pounds of Epsom salts and 
one dram of calomel may be given. This should be fol- 
lowed by two to three ounces of hyposulphite of soda and 
from one to four drams of quinine three times a day. When 
the temperature drops to normal, or below, stimulants 
should be used freely for a short time and be followed by 
iron and strychnine until convalescence is established. 

When the first case appears in a herd, all other animals 
that have been similarly exposed to tick infestation should 
be removed from further danger of such exposure, and 
thoroughly greased. Any cheap oil will do, but if it be one 
third kerosene, it will be more effective. This will not 
only kill the ticks already on the animal, but prevent others 
attacking it. An outbreak can usually be cut short in this 
way and the losses reduced very considerably. 

Prevention. — Immunity to tick fever in mature animals, 
so far as we now know, can only be secured through an 
attack of the disease. Cattle raised on tick-infested pas- 
tures have been rendered immune by mild attacks of the 
disease before they became fully susceptible. If it is true 
that immunity can only be secured through an attack of 
the disease, it follows of necessity that the only preventive 
is the exclusion or extermination of the tick. 

The ticks on any pasture or farm may be easily and 
quickly exterminated and the farm easily maintained free 
from ticks. Hence, it is possible, if not yet practicable, to 
exterminate the ticks over the entire South and maintain 
the country tick-free. 



192 VETERINARY STUDIES 

METHODS BY WHICH TICKS MAY BE EXTERMINATED 

1. Keep all cattle, mules, and horses out of the tick-m- 
fested pasture, lanes, and lots for one season, or, at least, 
after September 1, and the ticks will be exterminated by 
the next spring. 

2. Divide the pasture by a fence, with a rail or board 
tight on the ground, and keep all cattle, mules, and horses 
out of one half this year after September 1, and out of 
the other half next year, and the work of exterminating the 
ticks will have been accomplished. 

3. If possible burn the pasture over thoroughly in the 
spring. Mix sulphur with the salt given the cattle — one 
part of sulphur to three of salt. Begin not later than April 
15, and grease the legs and under parts of the body of all 
cattle, once a week, all summer. In greasing look carefully 
for any ticks that may have escaped the grease or attached 
themselves to the upper parts of the body. If any are 
found, pick them off and burn. The grease should be one 
third kerosene and the other two thirds any cheap oil 
available. If a little sulphur and tar be added, the effect 
may be improved. 

This third method requires considerable care and thorough, 
regular work to make it effectual, and is only practicable 
when the number of cattle is not too large. 

Concerning the life history. — The methods just given are 
based on the following facts concerning the life history of 
the tick: the full-grown female tick drops off the cattle 
when she becomes engorged with blood. Her heavy body 
and small, short legs make crawling difficult, so she gets 
under the dry grass, or " trash " close at hand. In two 
or three days she begins la^dng eggs, and lays from 1500 
to 2500 during the next two weeks. In very warm weather, 
under the most favorable conditions, these eggs hatch in 
about three weeks. The period may be prolonged for eight 
weeks, or indeed, the hatching prevented entirely, if the 
weather is sufficientlv cold. 



TEXAS OR TICK FEVER 193 

The young ticks when first hatched are very small^ being 
scarcely visible. They crawl up the grass, weeds, or small 
twigs, and there wait for the cattle to come along. If the 
cow does not come along for three months, they will still be 
there waiting for her. If no cow, mule, or horse comes 
along in three or four months, these small ticks die from 
starvation, for they have no other known means of obtain- 
ing food for development. If the young tick succeeds in 
lodging upon the skin of a cow, then in three or four weeks 
(and in cold weather much longer) they reach their full 
growth. The females, being engorged with blood, drop 
off and begin laying eggs as did their mothers. 

Neither old nor young ticks crawl far, hence a fence with 
a bottom rail or board on the ground will stop them^ but 
wire fences do not always afford protection. 

Ticks do not crawl from one animal to another. 

Eggs laid during the cold weather of late fall and early 
winter do not hatch, hence go through the winter as eggs 
and hatch when warm weather comes in the spring. 

All eggs laid before September 1 will probably hatch 
the same fall, and, therefore, the young ticks will be killed 
by the cold winter weather or starve to death before spring. 

Inoculation. — Not only does tick fever kill hundreds of 
thousands of dollars worth of Southern cattle every year 
and depreciate the value of all those marketed from one 
fourth to one half cent per pound live weight, but it also 
offei:s the greatest existing barrier to the improvement of 
the quality of Southern cattle by rendering the importation 
of pure-bred animals for breeding purposes extra hazardous 
and expensive. 

For the purpose of conferring immunity on imported pure- 
bred or other cattle, a method of inoculation has been 
found practicable which reduces the loss from fifty per 
cent or more to ten per cent or less. 

Method. — The process consists in drawing from 1 c.c. 
to 2 c.c. of blood from the jugular vein of an animal not 
less than two years old that was infested with ticks the 



194 VETERINARY STUDIES 

preceding summer, and injecting it immediately under the 
skin of the animal to be inoculated. This will produce 
tick fever in from seven to ten days. From this not more 
than one to three per cent will die if the subjects have been 
selected with proper care and are judiciously handled. 

Important conditions. — The animals should be between 
nine and fifteen months old. 

The inoculating should be done during December, Janu- 
ary, or February, for tick fever is less severe in cold weather. 

All ticks should be kept off the inoculated cattle until 
they have fully recovered from the inoculation fever. 

The inoculated cattle should at first be protected from 
gross tick infestation by having their legs and under parts 
of their bodies greased. 

The inoculated animal should be infested with the first 
crop of ticks appearing in the spring, for these are prob- 
ably less virulent than those hatched in the fall, and there- 
fore produce a type of disease intermediate in severity 
between the inoculation fever and that caused by the fall 
ticks. 

If these precautions are taken, not more than three to 
five per cent will die from tick infestation after inoculation. 

In the opinion of the writer the best method of introduc- 
ing pure-bred animals for improvement of the native stock 
is to import calves under four months old and allow them 
to become immunized by tick infestation, as occurs with 
our native-born stock. 



LECTURE XL 
TUBERCULOSIS 

Impoktance of this question is evidenced by the fact that 
human consumption and bovine consumption are apparently 
forms of the same disease, and this disease may probably be 
transmitted from cattle to people. It is unquestionably 
the most serious question now confronting the medical 
profession. 

Prevalence. — The most widespread and universal disease 
affecting either humanity or domestic animals. This is 
shown by reports coming from all parts of America and the 
civilized world. This disease prevails among all of the do- 
mestic animals, excepting possibly sheep. Concerning the 
susceptibility of these animals there is some discussion. 
Prevalence is probably greatest in the various classes of 
animals in the order named : cattle, hogs, horses. Chickens 
are also quite susceptible. 

A careful study of prevalence according to class and con- 
dition has shown just what ,any student of sanitary condi- 
tions should expect. The percentage was highest in each 
comparison among ^^ pure breds," in ^^city dairies," in 
^^ poor condition of stables," and ^' poor ventilation "; but 
it was shown that farm conditions, good stables, and good 
ventilation did not prevent infection. The percentage in 
pure-bred herds is much higher than among grades or 
natives. These records must not be taken to indicate that 
farmers should not improve their stock or that pure-bred 
herds should not be maintained. The evident suggestion is 
rather that it is unwise to attempt improving a herd by 
tuberculosis stock or to found a herd upon such stock. 

195 



196 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



Cause. — No fact in medicine is better established than 
that tuberculosis is caused by the bacillus of tuberculosis. 
We cannot have tuberculosis without these germs, and it is 
probable that no domestic animals or man can be placed 
under continued exposure to the germs without ultimately 
having the disease. Certain predisposing conditions un- 
doubtedly have much to do with the development of this 




Fig. 66. — Bovine Tuberculosis. {M. H. R.) 
A case showing plain symptoms of disease. Rare type. 

disease; for instance, close confinement, lack of ventilation 
and sunshine, and injudicious inbreeding. 

Modes of entrance. — (1) Lungs, with inhaled air; 
(2) stomach and intestines, with food and drink; (3) by 
inoculation through broken skin or mucous membrane; 
(4) by infection in utero, i.e. before birth. This (4) is very 
rare and probably of small importance compared with the 
others. 

Structures affected. — Tuberculosis may affect almost any 
tissue or organ of the body. Milk from tuberculous cows 
may be tuberculous, but the danger is especially great when 
the udders are affected. 



TUBERCULOSIS 197 

Extent of tissue diseased may vary from a few small lym- 
phatic glands to a general invasion of lungs, liver, kidneys, 
mesenteric glands, peritoneum, and pleura. 

Symptoms. — These vary according to extent and loca- 
tion of the disease. A few cases become thin and rough in 
appearance, and have chronic cough or chronic diarrhea, 
and show that they are in a debilitated condition. The 
great majority of these cases show no symptoms, but on the 




Fig. 67. — Bovine Tuberculosis. {M. H. R.) 

A famous show steer, in prime "condition." Liable to be as badly diseased as 
the preceding. 

contrary appear to be in the finest physical condition. 
There are a great many mild or latent cases, having but 
a small amount of tissue diseased, and the animals may 
live for many years. They may possibly die at old age, 
but on the other hand they may succumb to a sudden 
development of the disease following any condition which 
produces debility. 

When the lungs are involved, there may be a persistent 
cough, shortness of breath, pallor of visible mucous mem- 
branes, loss of flesh, and unusual sounds in the lungs. 



198 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



When intestines and mesenteric glands are affected, there 
may be chronic diarrhea with slow and persistent loss of 
condition. All these diagnostic symptoms may vary greatly 
and are often unreliable; e.g. a cow may be in good flesh, 
hair and eyes bright, and yet ready to die in a short time. 

Diagnosis. — The only reliable test is tuberculin, or 
Koch's lymph, which seems to be very accurate. An aver- 




FiG. 68. — Bovine Tuberculosis. {M.H.R.) 

A great variety of tubercles on the chest lining (costal pleura). Sternum below, 
broken ribs above. 



age of tests and post mortems of reported cases shows an 
accuracy of about 96 per cent. Tuberculin is used by in- 
jecting a definite quantity under the skin with a hypoder- 
mic syringe. Temperature is taken before and after the 
injection. A pronounced rise of temperature (2 degrees F., 
or more) ordinarily shows the presence of tuberculosis. 

Treatment is not practical. It is usually advisable to 
destroy or isolate diseased animals at once. 

Prevention. — Stockmen should breed with a view to in- 
creasing physical vigor instead of breeding fit subjects for 
tuberculosis, as many are doing. Bear in mind that an 



TUBERCULOSIS 



199 



animal may give a fine physical appearance and yet be 
easily susceptible to disease or be actually diseased. 

The practice of keeping cattle almost continuously in the 
stable does not harmonize with plain teachings of physi- 
ology, and the results of this practice must sooner or later 
be disastrous. The great law of animal life, that use begets 
strength and idleness begets disease, applies to lungs as 



^W-^-'^^^^'i 


^ ^. ..^ 






■,m-: 




,^^^^^s 


TMB 


m 


^^^g 


gS^^*^-^':**-*^^ 


^tSS^^^fi 


Z 


,. - ;^-^^:^^^^E 


^^^gSSm^ki^. 



Fig. 69. — Bovine Tuberculosis. (M. H. R.) 
Tubercles on the great mesentery. 



well as to muscles, and must always hold true. Animals 
cannot remain permanently healthy without a reasonable 
amount of exercise, sunshine, and fresh air. If lungs are 
used less than nature intended, they must necessarily lose 
in tissue nutrition and vitality, and gradually become 
absorbed or diseased. It is reasonable to expect such lungs 
to become tuberculous, for cattle and people alike have 
frequent opportunities for infection. We must realize that 
nature's laws cannot be violated without paying an inevi- 
table penalty. 



200 VETERINARY STUDIES 

It is unwise to buy cattle for breeding purposes without 
knowing that they are free from tuberculosis before placing 
with the herd. All sires, and it is especially true of cattle, 
should have abundant exercise in open yards or on tread- 
mills, or be driven or worked. Ventilation must be thorough, 
and barns should be constructed with a view to allowing 
the entrance of unlimited sunshine. Sunshine may spoil 
the luster of hair, but it also kills germs. 

Summary. — Do not found a herd with tuberculous stock. 
Do not introduce the disease while trying to improve a 
herd. Do nqt allow suspicious animals to stand in stable 
with healthy ones. Avoid incautious breeding and close 
confinement. Ventilate freely. Allow plenty of fresh air, 
exercise, and sunshine, especially to breeding stock. 

All breeding cattle should be bought under tuberculin test. 
Buy from a sound, i.e. tuberculosis-free, herd. It is much 
safer to buy from a sound herd than to buy even under 
tuberculin test from a tuberculous herd, or from a herd that 
has recently been badly affected. 

Disposition of tuberculous cattle. — Abundant experiments 
have demonstrated that sound calves can be raised under 
favorable conditions from tuberculous cows, and even from 
tuberculous sires. It is sometimes practical to free a herd 
from tuberculosis by breeding out the disease, instead of 
by immediately killing all diseased animals; It is usually 
wise to slaughter members of the herd which the owner does 
not think it advisable to keep in quarantine at a some- 
what increased expenditure of time and money. It is gen- 
erally recognized that tuberculous animals should be slaugh- 
tered under inspection and certain carcasses passed as fit for 
food purposes. 

Tuberculous cattle retained for breeding must be kept in 
a separate stable or in a tightly partitioned-off portion of the 
common stable. They must not be watered at the same 
tank as the healthy cattle, nor fed from common mangers or 
vessels. The danger in allowing tuberculous and non- 
tuberculous cattle to associate in the open air is much less. 



TUBERCULOSIS 201 

The tuberculous cows may be used for breeding purposes, 
and one or more crops of calves secured before the cows 
are finally disposed of. The calves should be raised upon 
the milk of healthy cows, or boiled milk from tuberculous 
cows, and kept out of infected stables and away from the 
diseased cattle. From 80 to 90 per cent of such calves 
may be raised free from tuberculosis in this way. 



LECTURE XLI 
THE TUBERCULIN TEST FOR TUBERCULOSIS 

Tuberculin is usually seen in fluid form and is then a thin^ 
watery, straw-colored fluid, slightly more viscid than water, 
due to the presence of glycerine used in making up the 
solution. 

Tuberculin is a chemical product from the bodies of the 
bacilli of tuberculosis, and is made as follows : a certain kind 
of broth is infected with the bacilli of tuberculosis. The 
bacilli are then allowed to multiply and grow in this medium 
until it has become charged with this germ product, tuber- 
culin. The whole fluid is then heated to kill the bacilli 
and filtered through porcelain. The germs are thus killed 
by heat and then filtered out. Tuberculin is therefore not 
only germ-free, but has also been raised to a high tempera- 
ture and cannot be infectious. 

Effect on cattle. — Careful experiments have demonstrated 
that tuberculin has no important effect, favorable or other- 
wise, upon the health or milk flow of sound cattle ; and that 
the effect on tuberculous cattle is favorable rather than 
otherwise. An experiment was conducted at the Minne- 
sota Experiment Station a few years ago, which included 
23 sound an'd 5 tuberculous cows, and compared the total 
milk flow and total butter fat of the herd for the week 
prior to test with the week of test. In this experiment the 
cattle were given ordinary handling, neither very rough nor 
unusually gentle. 

There was a moderate decrease in the milk flow during 
the two days of test, not more than could be easily accounted 
for by unusual handling of the cattle and the presence of 

202 



THE TUBERCULIN TEST FOR TUBERCULOSIS 203 

strangers. This decrease was almost made up during the 
succeeding five days. There was a sHght increase of butter 
fat during the week of test. Both variations were easily 
within the limits of normal variation. 

The experiment with the five tuberculous cows gave about 
the same results, the difference being easily within the limits 
of normal variations, neither the total milk flow nor total 
butter fat being materially affected by the test. Similar 
experiments have been made elsewhere, the results agreeing 
very closely with this general statement. It is undoubtedly 
possible for cattle to be so roughly handled during test that 
the milk flow might be seriously affected, but this cannot 
be charged to the tuberculin. In cases where serious results 
accompany or follow tuberculin tests, the disturbance can 
usually be traced to some cause other than tuberculin. 

Accuracy. — Averages of very large numbers of animals 
tested show that tuberculin has had an average accuracy in 
diagnosis of over 95 per cent, and in the hands of many 
veterinarians who have been very careful in their work it 
has been almost infallible. Very advanced cases some- 
times, although rarely, fail to react. Such cases are easily 
detected by ordinary symptoms, as a rule. 

The test. — Any number up to 60 or 70 may be included 
in one test. Larger numbers can only be handled to 
advantage by one who is thoroughly familiar with the test 
and who can use a number of thermometers. 

The injection is made on the neck just in front of the 
shoulder or on the flat of the rump. 

At least two assistants are needed: one to hold a lantern 
and assist in managing the cattle, another to hold some sort 
of a tray, usually a short piece of board, for carrying the 
needed materials. There will be needed a veterinary hypo- 
dermic syringe, holding 3 to 5 c.c, and provided with 
several short and reasonably strong needles. The syringe 
should be first sterilized. 

If the operator is without sufficient help, a bicycle lantern 
can be held in one hand while he is making the injection 



204 • VETERINARY STUDIES 

with the other. The needle should be short, of fair size, 
and inserted by a quick stab, entering at right angles to the 
skin surface. Some cattle are inclined to kick just as the 
operator steps out of the stall. This can be prevented by 
an assistant giving the tail a vigorous pull sidewise at the 
right moment. 

A very satisfactory place for the injection is on the 
upper and muscular portion of the rump. This avoids 
the necessity of going into the stall. 

Two periods. — The time of each test is divided into two 
periods: {A) the day before, and {B) the day after injec- 
tion. During {A) the temperatures are taken at 8 a.m., 
then at 2 and 6 P.M. The tuberculin is then given by hypo- 
dermic injection at 9 to 10 P.M. During {B) the tempera- 
tures are taken at 6, 8, 10, and 12 A.M., 2, 4, and sometimes 
6 and 8 p.m. 

The thermometer. — Self-registering thermometers, com- 
monly known as fever or clinical thermometers, are neces- 
sary for this work, and they should all be correct between 
100 and 105 F. All thermometers used should first be tested 
on the same animal or in warm water and the records com- 
pared. Any thermometer which varies one degree or more 
from the records shown by the others should be discarded. 

Temperatures are taken by inserting the thermometer 
into the rectum or vagina, usually the former. If a num- 
ber of cattle are being tested and several thermometers are 
in use, the latter may be secured to the tails for safety. 
This may be easily done by a simple wire clamp, or even 
by shoestrings tied so as to give the tail a few inches of play. 
This permits the operator to use a large number of ther- 
mometers, and prevents them from falling to the floor and 
breaking. 

Dose. — The dose is about 1 c.c. or J dram Bureau 
tuberculin per 500 lbs. live weight. The doses may be 
taken directly from the bottle, or one or two bottles at a 
time may be emptied into a small vessel, from which the 
doses can be more conveniently drawn into the syringe. 



THE TUBERCULIN TEST FOR TUBERCULOSIS 205 

Cautions. — The cattle must be kept under the same con- 
ditions as nearly as possible on both days; i.e. watered at 
the same hours and fed at the same hours on each day, given 
as nearly as possible the same amounts, and treated alike 
on the two days in every respect. 

There are several possibilities of error if operator is not 
careful, accurate, and observing. The cattle must not be 
excited or worried in any way but kept as quiet as possible 
during the whole test. If the whole stable or any portion 
of it be much warmer on the second day than on the first, 
or if any cattle are allowed to become thirsty, or to go 
much beyond their feeding time, or drink large quantities 
of cold water, note should be made of the fact and it should 
be considered in making the diagnosis in doubtful cases. 

Cattle that show high temperatures during period {A) 
should ordinarily be released from test, except in case of 
heavily pregnant cows. These may be tested, if carefully 
handled, up to within a short time before calving. It is 
always possible that an animal may show normal tempera- 
ture during {A) and then be feverish from causes not con- 
nected with the test during (J5). This rarely occurs, but 
the possibility must be borne in mind. 

On the other hand, a large quantity of very cold water 
drank may reduce the temperature one or two degrees at a 
critical time in a low reaction. 

Importance to breeders. — The value of the test to breeders 
lies in the fact that it enables them to know whether their 
cattle are free from tuberculosis, and it enables them to 
free their herds and put them on a sound and healthy basis 
in case they are diseased. 

Diagnosis is made mainly upon the fever reaction: i.e. if 
the temperature rises, between 8 and 20 hours after the in- 
jection, about 2.5 degrees or more above an ordinary normal 
range, as shown by comparison of the {A) and {B) tem- 
peratures, and careless errors have been avoided, it is safe 
to diagnose tuberculosis. A rise of 1.5 or less than 2 de- 
grees may be called suspicious and the animal held for 



206 VETERINARY STUDIES 

future retest. If the normal temperatures run low, e.g. 100 
F. or less, we would not ordinarily condemn on a 2 degree 
rise. Experience and judgment are very necessary in this 
work. 

The reaction. — A typical reaction is one wherein there is 
gradual rise and gradual decline. Very abrupt changes 
should be verified with a different thermometer. One or 
two high temperatures during (J5), with the others normal 
or nearly so, should not be considered as more than doubt- 
ful or suspicious. 

Animals that react sometimes show diarrhea and a local 
swelling at the site of injection, perhaps with shivering. 



I 



DIETETIC DISEASES 

LECTURE XLII 
AZOTURIA 

Prevalence. — Azoturia is a common and very serious dis- 
ease which affects horses under certain well-defined condi- 
tions. It is frequently fatal. It affects the best and most 
valuable horses, and is so very easily prevented that it would 
seem as though the farmer should be familiar with this 
disease, and his knowledge should come along other lines 
than that of sad experience. Farm horses in the North- 
west do comparatively little work during the winter, and 
are in high flesh when early spring work opens. This con- 
dition, together with the fact that the early spring is neces- 
sarily a season of irregular work, will explain why so many 
cases of azoturia occur during the spring months. 

History. — Azoturia rarely appears among horses at pas- 
ture or among those doing regular work, but almost in- 
variably during exercise after a period of idleness on full 
feed which has succeeded a previous period of work. 

This disease is frequently confounded with colic; some- 
times farmers call it spinal disease, and sometimes it is 
thought to be an inflammation of the kidneys ; but it is easily 
distinguished from any of these by the history, which is 
very uniform, by the symptoms which appear, and by the 
condition of the urine. 

Parts affected. — This is not a disease of the kidneys, as 
one would naturally think from the color and condition of 
the urine, but primarily a disease of the muscles, then of 
the blood and nervous system. The blood is dark and 

207 



208 VETERINARY STUDIES 

tarry, has a varnish-like gloss, and does not coagulate after 
death. The liver and spleen are engorged, and may be 
more or less disorganized after death. 

Duration. — Mild cases may recover in three or four days. 
The more severe cases either die in a few days or there may 
remain a persistent and more or less complete paralysis of 
the hind quarters and limbs for several weeks. 

Causes. — Predisposing and precipitating. 

The predisposing causes are the factors which favor the 
development of the disease, and include the following: high 
flesh, diet rich in proteid, and full feed during a period of 
rest, following a period of regular work. Most cases appear 
during the prime of life. Mares are more frequently affected 
than geldings, but all are liable. 

The chief precipitating factor is active exercise, following 
idleness on full feed, under conditions above given. It is 
probable that there occurs an accumulation of surplus pro- 
teid matters in the system during the period of idleness, 
which are rapidly disorganized when exercise begins. Just 
how this excess of proteid matters in the body serves to de- 
velop the disease, and what is the close connection betw^een 
this condition and the symptoms which appear, are matters 
of interesting scientific speculation but need not be dis- 
cussed here. What part may be played in this disease by 
sudden exposures to cold after confinement in warm, damp 
stables is a point of dispute. Some very good and recent 
authorities ascribe a very prominent place to this condition 
among the causes of azoturia. It is quite possible that the 
two conditions of accumulated proteids and sudden ex- 
posure to cold may be associated in many cases. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms appear suddenly with little 
or no warning and are very uniform. The horse frequently 
comes out of the stable feeling unusually well, then after 
going a short distance there is a sudden lameness or stiff- 
ness in his hind legs. Sometimes both are affected alike, 
but usually one first. The horse staggers, is very weak on 
his hind legs, and may fall before he can be unhitched. 



AZOTURIA 209 

These patients perspire very freely before and after going 
down; the muscles over the loins and hips are rigid to the 
touch, frequently tender on pressure, and may tremble or 
twitch. 

The urine is highly colored, varying from red to, almost 
black, and is usually increased in specific gravity; i.e. heavier 
than natural. This abnormal color is due to the presence of 
the red coloring matter of the blood and voluntary muscles 
(lean meat), and may be absent in mild cases. 

The pulse may run up to 60 or 80 per minute (normal, 42 
to 48); the temperature may be increased to 102 or 104 
(normal, 101.5), but in many cases the pulse and temperature 
vary but little from the normal. The bowels may be 
normal and the appetite fairly good in mild cases. The 
skin sensation may be diminished, as shown by pricking with 
a pin. The natural peristaltic action of the intestines may 
be suppressed, but the bowels will usually vacuate under 
the influence of an injection or other local irritation. A 
chronic paralysis affecting one or both hind limbs may be 
a very troublesome factor in the case. 

Prevention. — Prevention is simple, easily applied, and 
without expense, and this is the point that should be con- 
sidered by the farmers, rather than treatment, which is 
frequently unsatisfactory even when the patient recovers; 
moreover, one attack predisposes to others. A horse that 
has had azoturia once is very apt to have it again, and the 
second attack is more easily brought on than the first. 
Preventing the first attack may be the prevention of several 
attacks and of the final death of the horse. 

There is but slight danger of azoturia for the horse that 
is thin and weak, for the young colt or for the aged horse, 
for this disease usually affects the best horse in the barn, 
one in good flesh and in the prime of life. When such a 
horse has been working on full feed for a time and must 
then stand idle for a few days, or even twenty-four hours, 
make a very large reduction in the grain ration, or stop all the 
grain if the horse is quite fat, for a fat horse needs but little 



210 VETERINARY STUDIES 

grain when standing idle under any conditions, and especially 
is this true if he has recently been at work. Allow plenty 
of water and turn out in the yard every day if possible. It 
would be still better if the horse could be continued at 
light work. When such a horse has been standing for 
some time after previous exercise, and the grain has not 
been reduced as it should have been, the next best thing 
is to give a decided cathartic, e.g. a quart of raw linseed 
oil thirty-six hours before hitching, and then work very 
moderately the first day, for quick or violent exercise seems 
more liable to bring on an attack than slow and gentle use. 
This should be borne in mind when taking any horse out 
for the first time after a period of idleness. 

Treatment. — These are difficult cases to treat, and this 
part of the work should he done by competent veterinarians 
whenever such are accessible. The treatment of azoturia is 
frequently unsatisfactory, even wdth the most skillful prac- 
titioners in charge. The principal purpose of this lesson is 
to direct the attention to prevention and not toward treat- 
ment ; but cases will arise, through the hired man's anxiety 
to have his horses look well, when the owner is in no wise 
to blame, and these cases will occur, too, in sections where 
competent veterinarians are not located. 

If not voided naturally, means should be taken to draw 
the urine as soon as possible after the disease appears, and 
three times daily thereafter. This may frequently be ac- 
complished by inserting a hand in the rectum and pressing 
down on the bladder. This is an important feature in the 
treatment of severe cases. The azoturia patient has a 
much better chance for recovery if he can be kept upon his 
feet a portion of the time at least, and it is very desirable 
that this be done for several reasons; but slings should not 
be used unless the patient can support a portion of his 
weight upon the limbs. When the patient is unable to do 
this, put him in a clean, dry stall with plenty of bedding 
and turn him three times daily until he can stand with the 
aid of a sling. 



AZOTURIA 211 

Many different lines of treatment have been used by 
veterinarians during recent years, with differing and even 
conflicting opinions as to results. Common baking soda 
has been used in large, e.g. half pound, doses. Some 
veterinarians with wide experience believe they get best 
results with good nursing and very little medical treatment. 

Recently reports have been made from American and 
German sources concerning unusually good results from the 
use of adrenalin, especially in early stages. These reports 
need further confirmation but appear encouraging. The 
doses reported are about 1 dram of adrenalin chloride solu- 
tion in about 3 oz. water, and usually three times a day. 

One old line of treatment that has been much used and 
indorsed by best authorities is essentially the following: 
Cases that show difficulty in breathing with full pulse may 
be bled from two to four quarts, depending on the condition 
of the pulse, then give one quart of raw linseed oil, or, 
better, give one ounce of aloes with two drams ginger made 
into a pill with a little molasses; encourage the horse to 
drink as much as possible; if he will not drink freely, 
he should be drenched with water or be given weak 
salt brine to make him thirsty. The more he drinks within 
reasonable limits the better. If restless and violent, the 
patient should have a sedative; e.g. one oz. bromide of 
potassium with three drams fluid extract of gelsemium, 
given in half a pint of sirup. The muscles of the hips and 
loins should be fomented with hot water twice daily, two 
hours each time during the first three days of the illness, 
and after this a stimulating liniment should be used over 
these muscles twice daily until the patient has recovered. 

One or two hours after the physic and sedative dose two 
tablespoonfuls of the following prescription may be given 
in half a pint of cold water or sirup, every two hours, until 
all is given : — 

F. e. colchicum sem 1 oz. 

F. e. pilocarpus 3 oz. 

Spirits seth. nit. . 6 oz. 



212 VETERINARY STUDIES 

The purpose of this prescription is to stimulate and assist 
the kidneys and skin to excrete rapidly. When chronic 
paralysis remains after the acute stage has passed^ nux 
vomica should be given. Give one to two drams fluid ex- 
tract nux vomica or one to three grains strychnine sulphate 
twice daily in feed, beginning with small doses and gradually 
increasing until there appear symptoms of nervousness and 
muscular twitching, when the dose should be discontinued 
or rapidly reduced. 

Prognosis. — Estimates of results must be given with great 
caution, for sudden and unexpected changes may occur. 
Perhaps 40 to 60 per cent die in general practice. Prog- 
nosis is bad when complete paralysis occurs; when the 
disease develops violently from the start, the horse going 
down at the beginning and soon losing control of both limbs ; 
or when the patient grows more and more restless during 
progress of the disease, or is unable to stand or support 
part of the weight in the sling. If patient can stand alone, 
or can stand fairly well when assisted by sling, the pros- 
pects are favorable without much medical treatment. 



LECTURE XLIII 



HOVEN OR BLOAT 



Definition. — A form of indigestion in cattle and sheep 
characterized by an abnormal collection of gas in the first 
stomach or paunch. 

Causes. — Bloat is caused by excessive fermentation, 
which results indirectly from such conditions as sudden 
changes from dry food to pasture, or from one pasture to a 
better one, or from grass to clover. Grasses or clovers 
seem more apt to cause hoven when the dew is on, or after 




Fig. 70. — Trocar and Cannula. 
For tapping bloated sheep and cattle. 

a rain. Frosted roots and impaction from overfeeding 
may also result in arrested digestion, and then hoven en- 
sues. Sick cattle frequently bloat after lying for a long 
time on the side. 

Why cattle and sheep are more apt to bloat when the 
dew is on the grass, or after a rain, may be explained theo- 
retically in this way: The grass is more palatable and also 
heavier, the cattle eat more rapidly; more air is swallowed 
with the food, and they eat more than at other times. This 
larger quantity of food makes such a large and heavy mass 
in the stomach that the involuntary fibers are partially 
paralyzed. By reason of the weight and stretching, diges- 

213 



214 VETERINARY STUDIES 

tive processes are checked and fermentation goes to excess. 
Gas accumulates until the stomach may be greatly dis- 
tended. / 

Symptoms. — There is extreme distention of the stomach, 
which is most prominent on the left side, and difficulty of 
breathing. The pulse may be nearly imperceptible. The 
animal moans, may stagger and fall, then die in convulsions. 

Treatment. — If breathing is difficult, do not wait for the 
effects of medicines, but tap with trocar, as shown in class, 



Fig. 71. — Showing Where to Tap. (M. H. R.) 
See white cross in the flank. 

high in left flank and well forward. (See Fig. 71.) The tube 
may be left in some time if gas continues to accumulate. 
Then give the following as one dose in -| pint of sirup : — 

(A) Aromatic spirits of ammonia . . . . 1 oz. 
Turpentine 1 oz. 

This is a suitable dose for a thousand pounds live weight. 

Repeat every half hour until gas ceases to accumulate or 
until 6 doses have been given if necessary: or (B) give 4 oz. 
hyposulphite of soda in 6 oz. water every half hour until 
gas ceases to accumulate or until a limit of 6 doses has 



HOVEN OR BLOAT 215 

been given; or (C) give (A) and (B) alternating, one 
half hour apart. Do not exercise the cow or sheep when 
badly bloated. This is dangerous because the breathing is 
so greatly interfered with by the pressure of the stomach 
against the diaphragm. When the acute symptoms have 
subsided give the following for physic : — 

(D) Epsom salts 1 lb. 

Glauber salts "I- lb. 

Common salt J lb. 

Ginger (ground) 3 oz. 

F. e. nux vomica ....... 3 drams. 

Dissolve (D) in three pints hot water and give as a drench ; 
repeat in 16 hours if bowels do not move freely. 

Prognosis. — A large proportion of cases recover when 
properly treated soon after disease appears. 

Prevention. — A large proportion of these cases may be 
prevented, but hoven will appear occasionally under condi- 
tions which cannot be prevented. Avoid as fully as possible 
the conditions that have been cited as causes. There are 
two methods of turning cattle and sheep on new pasture 
in the spring or at any season; from one pasture to a richer; 
or from grass to clover, with reasonable safety. First — 
Feed well and then turn them on but a few minutes the 
first day, and increase this time each day for a week. Second 
— Give the cattle or sheep a large ration of the dry food, 
to which they have been accustomed, on the evening before 
they are to be turned on; repeat the large ration of this 
food the next morning, feeding much later than usual, and 
then turn them out as soon as done eating, which should be 
after the dew is off the grass and not soon after a rain. 
Under these conditions cattle and sheep usually may be 
turned on grass in the spring or on new or different pasture 
with little risk. Never make such change when the grass 
is wet from dew or rain. 

Pastures where the old grass stands quite heavy on the 
ground and the young grass grows up in such a way that 



216 VETERINARY STUDIES 

the stock must eat the two together, are much less danger- 
ous than those where the stock gets only the new grass. 

Causes of death. — There is usually carbonic dioxide gas 
poisoning and actual suffocation. Rupture of the stomach 
or diaphragm often occurs and is of course rapidly fatal. 



I 



LECTURE XLIV 
CHOKE 

Explanation. — Choking, as ordinarily understood, is an 
obstruction in any portion of the pharnyx or esophagus. 
In horses this is more commonly caused by dry food, and 
this usually occurs in the case of horses which are rapid 
eaters. Cows more fre- 
quently choke on pieces 

of roots, pumpkins, and Fig. 72. — For Relieving Choke. (M.H.R.) 
, , , riM Made of No. 10 or 12 wire. 

old bones, ihose cases 

where a long section of the esophagus is packed with soft, 

dry food are especially difficult to handle successfully. 

Symptoms. — The horse or cow stops eating suddenly and 
makes ineffectual efforts to swallow, then there are spas- 
modic actions of the neck muscles. When the animal at- 
tempts to drink, the water returns partly through the nose. 
If the obstruction is of considerable size and along the neck 
portion of the esophagus, it may usually be seen or felt. 
There is usually a profuse flow of saliva, and particularly 
in the case of cattle an involuntary chewing action. If the 
choking occurs in the thoracic portion, then medicines or 
liquids are swallowed in small quantities without difficulty 
until the esophagus is full, and return by the mouth, the 
animal being apt to cough. There is usually marked dejec- 
tion and distress, with an appearance of anxiety. Food 
and water are refused. Cattle frequently bloat. 

Prevention. — Roots should either be sliced or pulped. 
It should be borne in mind that cows usually choke when 
eating hurriedly, especially when attempting to swallow 
something under threatened attack from some other mem- 
ber of the herd. Horses choking on dry feed are almost 

217 



218 VETERINARY STUDIES 

invariably rapid eaters, and for such horses it is well to avoid 
dry bran. The grain, especially oats or similar food, should 
be given in such a way that the horse must get it slovvdy. 
The grain may be scattered over the bottom of a large 
manger. Any device which will force the horse to eat 
slowly will avoid the difficulty in normal cases. It should 
also be borne in mind that an animal which has been choked 
is very liable to have a recurrence of the same difficulty 
during the first week or two after the accident. 

Treatment. — If the obstruction is within reach, it should 
be removed by the hand, the teeth being held apart by 
some suitable device to protect the arm. A person with 
long arm and slender hand can frequently relieve choking 
in the pharynx or upper portion of the gullet, especially 
with an assistant to shove the obstruction upward toward 
the hand. A thin glove with the ends of the fingers cut off 
is desirable to protect the hand. 

By coughing. — Dry food that cannot be reached by hand 
should be softened by the use of oily or mucilaginous drinks, 
and then gradually worked loose by manipulation. The 
simple device of forcing the horse to drink enough to fill 
the upper portion of the esophagus may be resorted to. 
The horse will usually cough, perhaps expelling a portion of 
the loosened obstruction. In case the horse does not cough, 
he can be induced to do so by pinching the larynx and re- 
leasing suddenly. In this way considerable portions may 
be removed at each fit of coughing. A small portion may 
be loosened from the upper end of the obstruction and the 
animal may be induced to cough. Then another drink is 
given, and the manipulation and cough are repeated. Fre- 
quently the obstructing mass can be loosened at the lower 
portion, and the loosened portion swallowed if the obstruc- 
tion is high. 

If the choke is along the neck and on dry feed like oats 
or bran, then w^ater or raw linseed oil may be injected 
directly into the dry mass, with a good hypodermic syringe. 

Such a choke may often be relieved very satisfactorily 



CHOKE 219 

by simply washing out the mass through a double-current 
stomach tube. This method is applicable whether the 
choke is along the neck or within the chest. Probang 
should not be used in cases where the choke is due to dry 
food. 

Mechanical means. — Solid bodies, like pieces of roots, 
may be either shoved down to the stomach, or drawn up- 
ward by means of a corkscrew probang. The probang 
consists of a smooth flexible tube of suitable size, with a 
central rod, upon the end of which there is placed (in some 
makes) a sort of corkscrew. This is withdrawn into the 
tube during introduction; when the end of the probang 
touches the obstruction the central rod is shoved forward 
and the corkscrew worked into the root or whatever the 
obstruction may be. If the obstruction fails to withdraw, 
"it is at least broken up and softened to some extent every 
time the corkscrew is introduced. 

The simple device shown in figure No. 72 is very satis- 
factory for relieving cases of this kind. It consists of a 
piece of No. 10 or 12 wire, about 12 feet long; the ends 
bent together and twisted as shown in the cut, leaving a 
suitable loop at what was originally the middle of the wire. 
This is introduced into the gullet like a probang. The 
farther end passes the obstruction, which is then included 
by the loop; the wire is withdrawn and the obstruction is 
loosened, moved upward a short distance, or removed en- 
tirely. If the instrument merely loosened the obstruction, 
then the process is repeated. This has proven most satis- 
factory in the writer's experience. In all work of this kind 
the nose should be extended and the gullet kept in as 
straight a line as possible. 

The probang or wire loop should be introduced slowly and 
carefully. If the animal coughs, the instrument should be 
removed and another trial made, as the coughing indicates 
that the instrument has entered the trachea. The intro- 
duction and after use of these instruments must be very 
gentle and cautious. 



220 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Whole eggs that have been partly swallowed may be punc- 
tured by a large needle and then easily crushed. 

Tense, spasmodic action of the gullet may be controlled 
by the use of morphine or aconite. 

Whips and other stiff rigid instruments must be avoided, 
as they are very apt to tear the gullet just below the pharynx. 
Whatever is used must be smooth and flexible^ The after 
treatment consists of soft food, for at least a week. 



LECTURE XLV 
HEAVES 

Definition. — This is a disturbance of the process of res- 
piration characterized by easy inspiration and difficult ex- 
piration, the air being forced out by two distinct move- 
ments. This disease is usually conceded to be an indirect 
result of a disturbance originating in the stomach and affect- 
ing the lungs through the pneumogastric or tenth cranial 
nerve. Both these organs receive a portion of their nerve 
^supply from this large nerve. This nerve gives very deli- 
cate sensibility to the larynx, pharynx, esophagus, and 
stomach, and gives motor nerve fibers for the bronchial 
tubes, esophagus, and stomach. 

Future information may easily show that this theoretical 
nerve disturbance is not sufficient to account for many 
cases of ordinary heaves, but it is evident that true heaves 
is usually associated with the feeding of considerable quan- 
tities of timothy and clover hay. 

Heaves lessens very materially a horse's value and use- 
fulness. Horses so affected are often unthrifty by reason of 
chronic indigestion. Light feeders are as a rule free from 
heaves, and the horse that eats hay greedily is the one most 
liable to have heaves. 

Asthma is very similar to heaves in some respects, and 
it is w^ell known that persons having a tendency to asthma 
may very easily have attacks brought on by overeating, 
or by eating indigestible materials. 

In the lungs of horses affected with heaves the air vesicles 
are gradually dilated, losing their elasticity; they may even 
rupture together so as to produce small cavities from 
which the air is expelled with great difficulty. During forced 

221 



222 VETERINARY STUDIES 

expiration, the air may escape into the surrounding tissue. 
This emphysema, or air escaping from the air cells into the 
lung tissues, usually occurs in connection with heaves, but 
its relation to the disease is quite problematical. Plainly a 
horse may have such emphysema without heaves, but rarely 
heaves without the emphysema. This condition is probably 
to be regarded as an effect rather than a cause. 

Cause. — Heaves is generally conceded to be a reflex 
nervous disturbance through the stomach branch of the 
tenth cranial nerve, which nerve also supplies in part the 
heart and lungs. We may say that the direct cause of 
heaves is excessive eating of bulky food, especially hay 
that is overripe and dusty, or worse — musty. Tame hay 
cut very ripe and dusty clover hay are both prone to cause 
this trouble. Heaves rarely if ever develops in horses in 
pasture or that have only bright, wild hay or a reasonable 
quantity of early cut tame hay. This disease is said to be 
almost unknown in, arid regions where timothy and clover 
hay are grown by irrigation, and where such hay is never 
exposed to dew or rain and therefore does not develop 
fungi to a serious extent. Mere bulk and overripeness are 
probably not the only factors. Many cases of heaves may 
possibly be due to fungi or their products rather than to 
the character of the food with which the fungi are taken. 

Symptoms. — A peculiar, explosive cough usually appears 
before the breathing becomes much disturbed. After a 
time it is noticed that exercise produces unusual difficulty 
in breathing, the air being taken in quite easily but expelled 
with difficulty. When this stage develops, the air is ex- 
pelled in two efforts instead of one, the latter portion of the 
tidal air being expelled by a special effort of the belly 
muscles. Overfeeding, of course, increases the difficulty. 

Some cases of heaves may be disguised temporarily by the 
use of drugs and feeding on concentrated diet. This trick 
may be detected, however, by allowing the horse a hearty 
feed and water, and then giving active exercise, or even 
active exercise without the special feeding and water. It 



HEAVES 223 

is usually easy to distinguish heaves and roaring. The latter 
is a disease of the larynx due to paralysis of one of the 
laryngeal cartilages. It is shown by the abnormal sounds 
known as roaring or whistling^ the movement of the flank 
and chest being normal in character. 

Prevention. — The prevention of heaves may be very 
easily stated and almost as easily accomplished, by mere 
avoidance of well-known causes. There is a very general 
and very wasteful feeding of hay among farmers. This is 
not merely a waste of hay; it is more than that; — an injury 
to the horse. A case of heaves is a discredit to the owner 
or at least to the feeder, but on the whole, a rather credit- 
able thing to the horse. Heaves indicates that the horse 
is a good feeder and under wiser management would be 
able to take and digest a large amount of food and do hard 
work. Question often arises as to whether owners of 
mares should patronize a stallion affected with heaves. 
It has always seemed plain to the writer that heaves is not 
at all objectionable to the stallion, but rather a credit to the 
horse, indicating that he is a good feeder and liable to sire 
hearty colts. 

It is not wise to allow a horse to do very fast or hard 
work on a distended stomach, which means that during the 
first hour or so after hearty meals the work should be 
slower and easier. Little hay should be fed in the morning, 
and less at noon, with a fairly good feed in the evening. 

To prevent heaves, then, feed reasonable quantities of 
good wild hay or tame hay cut early and not allowed to 
become musty. Avoid all dusty foods. The amount of 
hay should be restricted to much less than is usually fed. 
Horses that are greedy feeders should be bedded with saw- 
dust or shavings or protected by a muzzle in case other 
bedding is used. 

Autopsy. — On examination post mortem the lungs may 
be found to be somewhat bloated and to contain more air 
than normal. The chambers in the right side of the heart 
are apt to be enlarged and their walls thickened. In ex- 



224 VETERINARY STUDIES 

amining the lungs of long-standing cases of heaves, we 
note that they are pale and float abnormally high in water, 
due to the emphysema or air in the tissues previously men- 
tioned. The stomach is usually larger than normal, due to 
overeating of bulky foods and consequent stretching. 

Treatment. — Avoid overripe and dusty hay. Feed little 
hay, and avoid much bulky food of any kind. Give but 
little hay for the morning feed, none at all at noon, 
and a moderate feed in the evening, but much less than 
would be considered careful feeding for a healthy horse. 
If the hay or grain is at all dusty, sprinkle it as a regular 
custom. Use horses affected with heaves for slow work, 
and give as much rest as possible after meals. 

Medical treatment is considered unsatisfactory so far as 
curative effect in bad cases is concerned. Fowler's solution 
in one-ounce doses 3 times a day in the f6ed, long continued 
and coupled with careful feeding, is often a great help. 
Proper feeding alone may be said to be almost curative, 
although subsequent attacks are easily brought on by 
injudicious management. 



LECTURE XLVI 

LAMINITIS 

Definition. — This is a painful and rather frequent dis- 
ease of horseSj — commonly called founder. It is essentially 
an inflammation of the sensitive parts within the hoof, and 
takes its name from the sensitive laminae. This disease is 
more common in the front feet, but may affect any of the 
feet — one or more. 

Symptoms. — The horse usually persists in lying down. 
There is unmistakable evidence of extreme pain. The res- 
piration, pulse, and even the temperature may be increased 
as a direct result of the great path. The pulse is full and 
strong. If the disease affects the front feet, the horse carries 
as much of the weight as possible upon the hind feet, with 
the two front limbs projecting forward. If the hind feet 
are involved, the horse stands with the two front feet back 
under the body, carrying as much weight as possible, with 
the two hind feet extending forward so as to relieve the 
sensitive parts from pressure. 

Cause. — Laminitis results from profound disturbances 
of the circulation. The unyielding horny box does not per- 
mit expansion of the inflamed tissues, hence the great pain 
that is invariably manifest in this disease. This disorder 
may have its origin in an unusual overfeeding; or in a 
large quantity of very cold water taken when a horse is 
very hot or tired. It may be a result of forcing a horse 
to stand on hard footing for a long time. Concussion on 
hard roads, exhaustion, and exposing a hot horse to cold 
wind or driving through cold water, may all serve as causes 
of laminitis or founder. It sometimes occurs in one front 
foot, or one hind foot, as an indirect result of lameness in 
Q 225 



226 VETERINARY STUDIES 

the opposite limb. The horse overworks the sound Umb 
in order to reheve pain in the previously lame one, and 
thus causes laminitis in the foot which had previously been 
sound. Laminitis not infrequently follows a pneumonia or 
bronchitis; sometimes inflammation of the bowels, and 
apparently without other direct exciting cause. 

Pathology. — There is first of all an inflammation of the 
sensitive parts within the hoof, especially the sensitive 
laminae. This is followed by an exudate, which may be 
either slight or considerable in amount and more or less 
persistent. In persistent cases, with considerable exudate, 
the toe of the os pedis (third phalanx) is gradually pressed 
downward against the sole. The sole may thus gradually 
become convex, and the horse becomes permanently unsound. 
Termination. — Laminitis may terminate in recovery and 
practical restoration of the affected parts, or there may 

remain a convex sole and a 
chronic soreness with a ten- 
dency for the hoof to grow 
in an unnatural shape, see 
figure 73. The wall be- 
comes wrinkled trans- 
versely, and grows un- 
evenly. 

Treatment. — These are 

Fig. 73. — A Foundered Hoof. (B.A.I.) ,, . , 

. 1, usually serious cases, and 

An old case. ^ ^ 

should always have the 
benefit of professional attendance and skill if such is ob- 
tainable. Any general treatment that could be suggested 
might be unwise in some cases, and unwisely applied in 
others. 

A treatment that is frequently satisfactory consists in 
keeping the feet wet with cold water (45° to 50° F.) for a 
long period of time, several days if necessary. Sometimes 
this may be done by standing the horse in a shallow stream, 
preferably with a soft bottom. Some good veterinarians 
prefer to use warm water for an hour at the beginning, 




LAMINITIS 227 

then change to cold water and continue the cold water as 
suggested. When a horse must be kept in the stable^ he 
should have a large box stall with deep, soft bedding. If 
he is compelled to stand for any great length of time in order 
to keep the feet in cold water, then he should be supported 
by a sling. Severe cathartics should be avoided — but it may 
be desirable to give very mild doses of aloes, or raw linseed 
oil. A dose of the former for this purpose would be one half 
ounce or less; the dose of the latter would be about one pint, 
either repeated as necessary. Coupled with this, two to three 
or even four ounces of saltpeter may be given, dissolved 
in drinking water, or as a drench in a pint of water three 
times daily for acute cases. Ordinarily the shoes should be 
removed. The toe, if long, should be shortened, but the 
sole should not be thinned or otherwise interfered with. If 
the horse is compelled to stand, he may stand more com- 
fortably with shoes that are high in the center and rocking 
backward toward thin, flat heels. If the pain is extreme, 
and not controlled by the resting upon soft bedding and 
continuous application of cold water, then some prepara- 
tion of opium should be given — as a matter of humanity, 
if for no other reason. The dose of laudanum is about one 
ounce, and may be repeated two or three times a day, if 
necessary to control the extreme pain. If an acute case 
can be induced to lie down, even by throwing some horses 
by ropes the first time, great relief and rapid improvement 
in respiration, pulse, and pain are soon noted. 

Prevention. — Intelligent care will prevent most ordi- 
nary cases of laminitis. 

Accustom horses to markedly changed conditions gradu- 
ally. This applies especially in case of fat and idle horses 
put to work and to country horses put on city pavement. 

Keep the heated horse out of cold winds and cold water. 
Avoid overfeeding and overdriving, and feed a hot horse 
or tired horse very cautiously. 



LECTURE XLVII 
LYMPHANGITIS 

Definition, — Lymphangitis is an inflammation of the 
various lymphatic tissues. It appears suddenly; is quite 
painful; and rarely fatal. 

Cause and history. — This disease usually appears among 
heavy horses of sluggish temperament. Such horses seem 
very much more susceptible than horses of different type. 
It almost invariably occurs among horses that are full fed 
and after a period of idleness^ perhaps only a day. 

Symptoms. — This disease usually makes its appearance 
with a chill which is followed by fever. The horse is' uneasy 
and in evident discomfort. A sudden swelling appears on 
the upper portion of the hind limb on the inside. The 
swelling increases gradually and extends around the limb 
and then downward. Certain lymph glands high up in the 
inguinal region or groin become involved. These may even 
develop abscesses, but this is very rare. There may even 
occur actual death of the patient from septic infection in 
rare cases. 

The horse is quite lame, and the affected limb is very 
sensitive to the touch. The horse perspires freely. The 
pulse is increased. Respiration is hurried somewhat, and 
the temperature is raised. The bowels are constipated. 
The urine is usually dark, colored, and scanty. 

This disease develops for about two days and maintains 
its severity for about the same period, and then there is a 
gradual abatement in typical cases. Most of the swelling 
in the limb subsides, and as this general swelling goes down, 
the inflamed lymph vessels appear as long, cordy swellings. 
There usually remains some thickening and enlargement of 

228 



LYMPHANGITIS 229 

the leg, and this disease is apt to recur, each time leaving 
something of an increased enlargement until there is finally 
developed what is commonly known as elephant leg. 

Lymphangitis might possibly be confused with simple 
dropsy or with farcy. It can be distinguished from simple 
dropsy by its acute pain, its fever, lameness, and cordy 
swellings. Lymphangitis may be distinguished from farcy 
by its more acute fever and more acute local trouble in the 
leg; by its early inflammation of lymph glands in the groin, 
and absence of farcy buds. 

Prevention. — The grain ration should be very greatly 
reduced during idle periods. This is true for any horse in 
fairly good flesh, and particularly true of horses of the type 
that has been mentioned as especially subject to lym- 
phangitis. 

Treatment. — Prompt and vigorous treatment seems to 
abort the disease in a fair proportion of cases. Hot fomen- 
tations over the swollen part, to be continued for several 
hours, is one of the most important parts of the treatment. 
Between the periods of fomentation there should be given 
vigorous friction, rubbing upward, and long-continued light 
exercise. If the horse is able to walk, he should be kept 
moving about slowly for several hours at a time. During 
the first 3 or 4 days and until the active symptoms abate, 
and until the horse is again receiving normal exercise, the 
food should be light and laxative. Later the horse may be 
returned to full feed. 

Bleeding is advocated by good authorities for acute 
cases with high fever. Four or five quarts may be drawn 
for this purpose from the jugular vein. A moderate physic 
should be given : e.g. 4 to 8 drams of aloes in a physic 
ball or J pound Epsom salts dissolved in a pint or so of 
water 3 times a day may be substituted for the aloes. Two- 
ounce doses of saltpeter should be given 3 times a day, for 
one or two days, each dose given either as a drench dis- 
solved in two pints of water, or it may be conveniently 
given in the drinking water if the horse will take it so. 



230 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Prognosis. — Lymphangitis usually ends in recovery so 
far as the general disturbances are concerned. Something 
may be estimated concerning the probable duration of ill- 
ness by noting the severity of the chill which comes at the 
beginning of the attack. 



LECTURE XLVIII 
PARTURIENT PARALYSIS (MILK FEVER) 

Causes. — Predisposing and precipitating. 

Predisposing causes. — Age (maturity), heavy feeding and 
milking qualities, pregnancy, easy delivery, lack of exercise, 
and high temperature in stables. 

The cow that is in the prime of life, with her third or 
fourth calf, and that is a heavy feeder and milker, is the one 
most subject to this disease. Cows in thin flesh, that 
have been underfed during pregnancy, are not liable to 
have this disease. Neither are young heifers nor old cows. 

Precipitating causes. — Delivery, sudden increase of gland 
activity in the udder, disturbance of circulation, anxiety, 
exposure to cold and damp. 

Schmidfs theory was that certain chemical poisons are 
formed in the udder, absorbed into the blood, and circulated 
throughout the body, reaching the brain and spinal cord 
through the general circulation, and producing the general 
symptoms of paralysis of sensation and motion. Dr. Schmidt 
noticed that the greatest mortality occurs when the disease 
appears very soon after birth, and incidentally that is the 
period of most abundant colostrum in the udder. 

A still later theory, supported by the results of various 
lines of treatment, is that milk fever is essentially a dis- 
turbance of blood pressure. If by any means the amount 
of blood held by the udder is limited, milk fever is prevented. 
If blood is forced out of the udder by pressure in the milk 
ducts, the disease is usually cared. 

Symptoms. — Early, or warning, and diagnostic, or positive. 

Early symptoms. — Uneasiness, sudden constipation, eyes 
stupid or wild, tail switches uneasily, milk flow checked. 

231 



232 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Such symptoms should warn of danger, if occurring during 
first five days after calving, or within two days before. 

Diagnostic sympto7ns. — Patient goes down; loses sensa- 
tion and voluntary motion; pupils dilate; cow lies in a 
peculiar position with head in flank and unable to swallow; 
pulse is at first bounding and full — later depressed. 

Prevention. — This is always more satisfactory than 
treatment, and is especially applicable to milk fever. For a 




Fig. 74. — Parturient Paralysis — Milk Fever. {M.H.R.) 
Early stage. Unsteady on hind legs. 

heavy milker, sudden changes in diet should be avoided. 
Any change should usually be toward one lighter and more 
laxative. It is sometimes advisable to put especially sus- 
ceptible cows up from pasture on to light, dry feed. Food 
should be light, laxative, easily digested, and small or 
moderate in quantity. A mild laxative (a) may be given 
2 to 5 days before calving, and a cathartic (6) within 12 
hours after calving. For (a) give one quart raw linseed oil. 
For (h) give 1 to 2 pounds of Epsom salts with 2 to 5 ounces 
powdered ginger, the dose depending on size of cow and 



PARTURIENT PARALYSIS (MILK FEVER) 233 

condition of the bowels. Allow cows abundant exercise 
during the last month of pregnancy, and, if a cow is nervous, 
leave the calf near her for a few days. 

Usually there should be little or no milk drawn before 
calving and but little" removed during the first twenty-four 
hours after calving, not more than the calf would take 
naturally. This is especially important as a preventive of 
milk fever with high-type dairy cows, and is satisfactory if 
the plan is followed with some intelligence. 




Fig. 75. — Parturient Paralysis. (M. H. R.) 
Later stage. Head held unsteadily. 

Treatment. — These cases require skill in treatment, and 
the affected animals are usually valuable. For these 
reasons stockmen should not treat these cases if com- 
petent veterinary services may be had. A line of treatment 
is suggested here because cases often occur where it is not 
possible to obtain professional assistance. 

The patient must not be allowed to lie flat on the side, 
but should be propped up by means of bags of sand, bran, 
or hay, so that she lies on the sternum. If the head is 
thrown around violently, it should be supported by means 



234 ' VETERINARY STUDIES 

of a rope tied to some overhead support. The cow must 
also be kept thoroughly warm and dry. In bad cases, 
equalize circulation by vigorous applications to skin; e.g. 
mustard and turpentine. Retain heat in cold weather by 
four or five blankets. Preserve quiet ; draw urine twice daily 
with catheter, and use large quantities of slightly irritating 
rectal injections repeated several times daily, if necessary. 

Give no medicine or liquid food by the mouth except as 
directed by a competent veterinarian. This is because of 
difficulty in swallowing and the danger of producing fatal 
pneumonia in a case that should have recovered. 




""^ 



Fig. 76. — Parturient Paralysis. 
Cow very stupid. Skin has lost sensation. Head in the jflank. Still later stage. 

Schmidfs treatment was the first of our modern udder 
infection treatments, and is directed to the local seat of 
trouble. It has been very successful. 

The udder should be well brushed, then placed on a clean 
towel or piece of oilcloth and disinfected with 1 to 1000 
corrosive sublimate in water, or 3 per cent lysol or creolin, 
or 5 per cent carbolic acid. Hands of the operator and 
the teat tube, rubber tubing, and funnel should all be dis- 
infected, the two latter by boiling. After the teat tube is 
disinfected, it should not be carelessly handled or come in 
contact with anything that can contaminate it. Bacterial 
cleanliness is of the utmost importance in the Schmidt 



PARTURIENT PARALYSIS (MILK FEVER) 235 

treatment^ and also in the air-injection treatment to be 
mentioned later. 

About 2j drams iodide of potash are dissolved in one 
quart of boiled water. One fourth of this is injected by 
means of a syringe or by means of rubber tubing and a 
milk tube through each teat into the udder. Each quarter 
is thoroughly milked out just before the injection is made. 
The solution should be injected at about 105-8° F.^ and left 
in the udder. The temperature should not be guessed at. 
It can be determined accurately by means of a dairy ther- 
mometer. 

Treatment may be repeated in 3 or 12 hours if needed. 

Air treatment. — The injection treatment for milk fever 
has passed gradually through several stages from iodide 
potash solution (Schmidt treatment) to various other solu- 
tions, then oxygen gas, and finally simple, clean air. This 
air-injection treatment is the one now in most common use. 
Apparently full distention of the udder is the essential 
thing, and it matters but little as to what is used to distend, 
providing it be clean and not irritating. Great care in 
cleanliness is necessary to avoid infection of the interior 
of teat and udder with germs which might cause garget or 
septicaemia (blood poisoning). The udder is given the same 
preparation as for Schmidt's treatment. Air is injected by 
a special syringe in which air is filtered through cotton 
before entering the udder. The teat tube must be well 
boiled and the utmost care used as to clean handling and 
the injection of clean air. The quarters are pumped full 
of the filtered air; it is well to give the udder massage 
treatment in order to disseminate air through the milk 
ducts during the injection process. A broad tape is tied 
around the teat and left on for about six hours. 

The injection may be repeated in three to six hours if 
necessary. In an emergency an ordinary bicycle pump 
connected by rubber tubing to a milk tube may be used, 
but this, of course, does not filter the air. 

Prognosis. — It is difficult to make an accurate estimate. 



236 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Sudden and unexpected variations occur. Loss under the 
Schmidt or air treatment is not large. The prospect is more 
unfavorable if: the case develops soon after calving; it 
develops rapidly and seems to overwhelm the system ; de- 
cided loss of animal heat; tympanites or bloating; convul- 
sions; cornea becomes insensible; lower lip hangs loosely. 
Favorable if: circulation remains good; feces are passed; 
patient attempts to rise or eat; slight fever while circulation 
is still weak; if rectal or vaginal irritation causes a dis- 
charge of feces or urine. 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 

LECTURE XLIX 

LAMENESS 

Definition. — Any irregularity of the gait, regardless of 
cause or degree. 

Locating the lameness. — It is usually quite easy for any 
observer to recognize that an animal is lame, provided the 
lameness is at all decided, but there are many cases where 
the lameness is so very slight that it is difficult for an ex- 
pert to locate it or even be sure that the animal is lame. 

Side, — A very common error is that of locating the 
lameness on the wrong side. This is easily avoided if one 
remembers that the head and weight of the body in general 
come down most noticeably with the sound limb. For in- 
stance, a horse being lame in the left front leg will drop 
very evidently as he lands upon the right front leg. 

Gait. — Some forms of lameness are detected with great 
difficulty when the animal is walking, but are easily seen 
when the horse is trotting. It is usually conceded that the 
latter is the best gait for diagnostic purposes, although the 
observer should study the movements at both walk and 
trot if possible. The pacing gait is rather confusing. 

The test. — The animal should be tried on both hard and 
soft ground, and on side hill. If the lameness is in the foot, 
the lameness is most marked when the animal travels on 
hard ground. On the contrary, when a horse is lame in 
the shoulder, he is apt to travel with great difficulty in deep 
mud or in snow. 

General examination. — The horse should be examined 
unblanketed in the stall, making him step from side to 

237 



238 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



side; and noting how he stands at rest. Then the horse 
should be taken out and observed while walking and trot- 
ting, coming toward, passing by, and going from the observer, 
the latter observing carefully the movements of the entire 
body and the use of each limb. It is especially important 
to observe head and hips in solving the first problem of 
locating the diseased limb. 

It should always be borne in mind that the front foot is 
an especially common seat of lameness. 

FROM BONE DISEASES 



Bony growths. — Splints, spavins, ringbones, etc., are 
simply developments of bone tissue, the result of an inflam- 
mation of the periosteum. These are all recognized as 





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Fig. 77. — Ringbones. {M. H. R.) 

1. Ringbone and sidebone, with general anchylosis. 

2. Ringbone and sidebone, with general anchylosis and marked bony enlarge- 
ment. 

3. High ringbone with anchylosis on first and second phalanges. 

4. Low ringbone with sidebone, and anchylosis of the second and third phalanges. 

5. Ringbone with sidebone, and unilateral anchylosis. 



LAMENESS 239 

forms of unsoundness, and usually cause lameness. This in- 
flammation may have its origin in bruises or other injuries, 
or possibly the inflammation in this tissue may be the result 
of an extending inflammation from some adjoining tissue, 
but in any case the result is usually a projecting develop- 
ment of bony tissue. 

Splints. — These appear as small tumors along the meta- 
carpal bones, usually at the junction of the large and small 
metacarpals. They may be of various shapes and sizes, 
but are usually small. They are generally more serious 
when located near the knee. Occasionally there appears 
what is known as a pegged splint, in which the growth 
extends across the back of the cannon, beneath the sus- 
pensory ligament. 

The lameness which results from splints is rather easily 
recognized, first, by locating the splint, noting the sensitive- 
ness on pressure over this point. A peculiarity of the 
lameness is that the horse walks nearly or quite sound, but 
trots very lame, especially on hard ground. 

There is a natural tendency to recover. Lameness from 
splints is rarely seen in aged horses for this reason. 

When the splint appears very close to the knee, or in the 
pegged form, there is less prospect of natural recovery, and 
with the latter form lameness is very apt to be permanent, 
unless relieved by surgical means. 

Ringbone. — This is characterized by enlargement of some 
portion of the pastern bones. It may be in front, behind, 
on either side, or extending entirely around this region. It 
may be located near the crown of the hoof or very much 
higher, and we thus have ringbone divided artificially into 
two classes, high and low. 

Ringbones are very much more serious forms of unsound- 
ness than splints, as they are more apt to be permanent in 
effect, and even if the soreness be relieved, there is liable to 
be a mechanical lameness because of a stiffened joint. 
This unsoundness and the lameness resulting from it are 
very easily detected. 



240 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Sidehones. — Sidebone is an abnormal condition of the 
lateral cartilages, characterized by a firmness under pres- 
sure of these cartilages — which should be quite elastic. 
The firmness is due primarily to a deposit of lime in the 
cartilage structure. Sidebones are detected as bonelike 
structures which appear above the crown of the hoof and 
just beneath the skin on either side. They may cause lame- 
ness during the period of inflammation and hardening. In 
some cases the lameness is persistent. 

Spavin. — The cause of lameness which we recognize 
under the name of bone spavin is an abnormal condition 
of the tarsal bones at the lower, inner, front portion of the 
hock. There is usually something of an enlargement, vary- 
ing from a very small growth, commonly called by horse- 
men a jack, to a very large growth which every one recog- 
nizes as bone spavin. 

There is another form of bone spavin in which there is a 
slight or possibly no external development at all. In this 
form of spavin there may be diseases of the bones in the 
deeper parts; particularly erosions of the articular cartilages. 
Bone spavins have a tendency to recover without treat- 
ment, although in many cases the period required for natural 
recovery is very long, extending through a period of years. 
In other cases recovery can never occur. Recovery when 
brought about by natural or artificial conditions implies 
that certain of the tarsal bones have united in the process 
called, technically, anchylosis, and the inflamed surfaces are 
no longer rubbing together as the limb moves. 

Many bone spavins doubtless appear as the result of 
slight injuries in susceptible subjects, particularly those that 
have a strong hereditary tendency to diseases of this kind. 

Bone spavin is one of the most serious forms of unsound- 
ness of the organs of locomotion. 

Symptoms. — A spavined horse steps on the toe, and 
carries the hock joint with as little movement as possible. 
The lameness usually disappears or at least greatly im- 
proves with exercise. 



LAMENESS 241 

What is known as the hoch test is made by holding up the 
limb, with the hock sharply bent, for several minutes. 
Then the horse is started suddenly. In case of spavin the 




Fig. 78. — Sidebones. {M. H. R.) 

Due to an inflammation and ossification of the lateral cartilages: 1, normal 
OS pedis ; 2, 3, 4, varying types of sidebones. 

first few steps are very lame. Old horses without spavin 
may respond to this test and lead to error if one is not 
careful. 

FROM SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES 

Synovial sacs. — The ordinary wind puffs of the ankle, 
and bog spavins and thoroughpins at the hock, are typical 
illustrations of enlarged synovial sacs. They are not usually 
the cause of lameness, but are to be regarded rather as 
symptoms. 

Wind puffs usually indicate considerable amount of hard 
road work. 

Bog spavins. — These are enlargements of the synovial 
sac of the hock joint, and appear at the inner and front part 
of the hock. They are often hereditary. 

Thoroughpins are very similar, to bog spavins and wind 
puffs, except in location. Thoroughpins appear at the upper 
and back part of the hock. They may or may not connect 
with the synovial sac of the hock joint. 

Open joint. — Lameness from open joint is quite com- 
mon among city horses. This usually results from punc- 
tures of the synovial sacs and the entrance of foreign matter, 
resulting in an acute inflammation or synovitis. This form 
of lameness can usually be very easily detected, and the 



242 VETERINARY STUDIES 

cause recognized. It is very serious under all circumstances^ 
and frequently results in loss of the animal. 

Curb. — This is a result of an injury or strain at the 
back of the hock joint, and is characterized at first by a hot, 
sensitive swelling just back of the lowest part of the hock 
joint. After the period of swelling and inflammation sub- 
sides, there is apt to remain a hard tumor, particularly on 
what is known as curby hocks. In cases of young animals 
given proper treatment the remaining enlargement may be 
very slight or may practically disappear. 

Capped hock. — Capped hock is not usually a cause or 
condition of lameness; but is mentioned at this place for 
other reasons. This is an unusual prominence at the point 
of the hock, and produced by bruises. Some horses get it 
by backing up against the stalls and striking so as to in- 
jure the point of the hock. Other cases are produced in 
car shipments. In other cases there seems to be a natural 
tendency, and the disorder is brought about by very slight 
injuries. The first swelling may usually be reduced by 
prompt treatment, but it returns with very slight injury, 
and after several attacks is apt to be permanent. This does 
not injure horses for actual use, but is unsightly, and ma- 
terially reduces the sale value. 

Shoe boil. — This appears as an enlargement in the point 
of the elbow or superior extremity of the ulna. It is very 
similar to capped hock in cause, character, and subsequent 
history. Shoe boils are unsightly and injure sale, but do 
not cause lameness. 



LECTURE L 
SOUNDNESS 

If at any time ahorse has any disease which either actually 
does make him less capable of his proper work^ or which 
in its ordinary progress will diminish the natural usefulness 
of the animal, this is unsoundness. 

Unsoundness. — The above is a very comprehensive defi- 
nition^ but soundness is usually relative^ rarely if ever abso- 
lute or perfect. What we mean in passing a horse as 
sound, is that he is practically sound. 

Definition. — To be theoretically sound a horse must 
have no disease or other condition that interferes or is 
likely to interfere with his usefulness, or injure his selling 
value. For instance, a horse may have a spavin which 
both lessens his ability to work and injures his selling value. 
The same would be true of heaves. A horse may have a 
disease from which he will recover. At the time of the 
examination he will be technically unsound. 

Unsoundness may be temporary or permanent. Tem- 
porary unsoundness ma}^ be illustrated by an influenza, 
from which a horse would probably recover, or light sprains, 
or a bruised ankle — from interfering. In the latter case 
the question would arise at once as to whether the inter- 
fering was due to faulty conformation or to faulty shoeing, 
for the latter could be easily remedied. In the former case 
the condition would be serious; in the latter condition it 
would be unimportant. 

Normal conditions. — It is necessary first of all to get 
familiar with the usual normal and unusual normal con- 
ditions and appearances for comparison. For instance, the 
hocks may be perfectly sound, and yet have peculiar bony 

243 



244 VETERINARY STUDIES 

development. In such cases it will generally be found that 
both hocks are alike. The knees may have similar peculiar 
development; and yet be perfectly sound. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE 

Examination. — An examination for soundness should be 
systematic and thorough, although it may be rapidly done. 
Examination should be made with a horse in the stall; as 
he backs out, stands at rest and in motion. In the stall 




Fig. 79. — Spavins. Two Types. {M.H.R.) 

I. Spavin with marked bony enlargement. A, metatarsals ; B, tarsals with en- 
largement and anchylosis. 

II. Blind spavin. Extensive ijlceration of articular surfaces ; no enlargement ; 
no anchylosis. 2, os calcis ; 3, scaphoid or large cuneiform. 

examine to see whether the horse cribs or weaves, or has 
any other stable habit which is objectionable. As the horse 
backs out of the stall, he may show peculiar use of the hind 
legs or imperfect control, due to serious disorders of the 
nervous system. Very frequently the first intimation of 
spavin may be had as the horse is made to step from side 
to side, particularly as he steps toward the spavined leg. 

At rest. — With the horse at rest the observer should begin 
in front and examine the ears for hearing, for tumors that 
may develop around the base, for split ears, etc. 



SOUNDNESS 245 

The eyes should be examined to test the sight, bearing 
in mind that moon blindness, which recurs at intervals 
and leaves the eye more or less nearly normal between 
times, still shows a weakened or squinting appearance that 
is suggestive. Bear in mind also amaurosis, which may 
leave the eye blind, but quite natural in appearance. 

The nasal chambers should be examined for ulcers, scars, 
or discharges which would suggest possible glanders, bear- 
ing in mind that dishonest dealers sometimes plug the 
nostrils with a sponge to prevent the appearance of sus- 
picious discharge. 

The teeth should be examined for evidences of cribbing, 
for age, and for a condition commonly known as parrot 
mouth, which interferes with a horse feeding in pasture, i.e. 
overhanging upper jaw teeth. 

The lips should be examined for evidence of paralysis. 
The glands under or rather between the portions of the 
lower jaw should be examined particularly with reference 
to glanders. See Glanders. 

The poll should be examined for scars or other evidences 
of present or previous poll-evil. 

The withers should be examined for scars, for discharging 
sores, and other evidences of fistulous withers. 

The shoulders should be examined for sore neck and par- 
ticularly so-called collar boils. The latter are either flat and 
broad or more prominent tumors, which will usually subject 
a horse to sore shoulders whenever he is put to work. 

The elbow should be examined for shoe boil; the knee for 
scars or what is commonly known as broken knee, which 
indicates that the horse is inclined to stumble, and also for 
what is known as knee spavin. 

The cannon or shin bones must be examined for splints, 
and behind them the tendons must be examined for evi- 
dences of sprains and other injuries which are usually indi- 
cated by a thickening of the parts. 

Ankles are to be examined for evidences of interfering, 
and fractures or other injuries of the sesamoid bones and 



246 VETERINARY STUDIES 

attached ligaments. The region of the pastern is to be 
examined for ringbones^ sidebones, fractures, and evi- 
dences of the operation known as nerving. Evidences of 
this operation are found in scars about midway of the 
pastern on each side, just at the edge of the back tendon. 
The sides of the back tendons shoahi also be examined just 
above the ankle for scars, wtiich would suggest another 
nerving operation. The mere fact that a horse has been 
nerved, whether going sound at the time of examination or 
not, is a very serious objection. This operation is not 
usually resorted to except as a measure of last resort, and 
it does not in any sense cure the original disease. 

While passing along the side and flank the breathing 
should be observed, as to whether it is even and regular, 
or jerky, suggesting heaves. The flank and lower part of 
the abdomen must be examined for possible ruptures. 

Stepping behind the horse, the two hips are compared for 
evidences of fractures, or what is commonly known as 
hipped or hip shot. This disorder does not interfere seri- 
ously with the horse's working ability, but gives the horse 
a very awkward appearance and materially lessens the 
selling value. 

The hocks must be examined for bog and bone spavins, 
thoroughpins, and curbs, and the point of the hock for 
what is known as capped hock. The same examination is 
made of the cannon, ankle, and pastern as for the front 
limbs. 

The/ee^ should all be examined for evidences of contrac- 
tion at the heels, for flatness or convexity of the sole, 
founder, navicular disease, and other diseases of the feet 
which are easily recognized. Among these should be 
named quarter and toe cracks, and serious injuries to the 
crown of the hoof by sharp calks. 

In motion. — The horse should be examined while walk- 
ing and trotting. The movements of the neck and head are 
studied as he comes toward the observer; then, as he passes 
by, the movements of the limbs are noted as to the height 



SOUNDNESS 



247 



to which they are raised; the bend of the joints, whether 
easy and natural or otherwise. The way in which the 
foot lands upon the ground, whether flat, on the toe, one 
side, or on the heel, is to be noted and considered. As the 
horse passes from the observer the movements of the hips 
and hind legs are noted with a view to detecting lameness 
those parts. Examination in motion on hard road or 



m 





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Fig. 80. Navicular Disease, (ilf . fl". i2.) 

1. Normal navicular bone. 

2. Exostosis (bony enlargement) with fracture. 

3. Exostosis with extensive ulceration of the articular surface. 

4. 5, 6, 7. Varying types of exostosis. 

pavement should be made, especially to bring out diseases 
of the feet. Then motion in deep mud or in snow should 
be studied. If these are not available, the horse should be 
made to step over a rail or plank held up about a foot from 
the ground in order to detect or make more prominent pos- 
sible soreness or lameness in the shoulder or hip. 

The lungs. — Finally, the horse should be given vigorous 
exercise on a full stomach. For instance, a run to a heavy 
wagon, or a short run uphill to determine whether the lungs 
are normal, or, in other words, for the purpose of testing 
his wind. It is possible to partially disguise abnormal 
breathing while a horse is at rest, but it is practically im- 
possible to do so if the horse is given violent exercise, and 



248 VETERINARY STUDIES 

the latter should preferably be done after feeding and 
watering. 

SUMMARY 

The most common and obvious forms of unsoundness 
are: Bad eyes; glanders shown at the nose; poll-evil, just 
back of the ears, at the top of the neck; fistula at the 
withers; heaves, shown in breathing; splints, along the 
cannon; injured tendons; farcy sores on limbs or body; 
bruised ankles from interfering; sidebone and ringbones at 
the pastern; navicular disease, corns, founder, cracks, etc., 
at the foot; fractured hip (hipshot); spavin at the hock 
in front, and curb at the hock behind. 



LECTURE LI 
COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE 

RHEUMATISM 

This disease is rather common in swine, and affects either 
the muscles or joints. 

Cause. — Frequently due to cold, damp quarters, and yet 
cases of rheumatism appear under the most favorable con- 
ditions. It is not thought best to discuss the physiological 
chemistry involved, in view of the uncertainty which still 
exists. 

Symptoms. — Affected animals are lame and sore. The 
exact symptoms depend of course upon the location. Very 
frequently the ankle joints are swollen and very tender. 
There is a rise of temperature in the acute cases. Food is 
refused and movements are very painful. This disease in 
swine, as in other animals, exhibits a tendency to move 
about from one limb or from one joint to another. 

Treatment. — Physic freely; e.g. for a hog weighing 150- 
200 pounds give 2 ounces Epsom salts or 2 ounces 
castor oil, or 2 compound cathartic pills. Give 15 drops 
oil of gaultheria in ^ ounce of bland oil, like linseed 
oil or sweet oil. Give also potassium iodide in 10-grain 
doses 3 times a day, either in water or feed. For local 
effect apply over the joints the following liniment: 8 oz. 
tincture belladonna, 1 oz. tincture opium, and 1 oz. fluid 
extract aconite. This treatment should be applied freely 
on flannel cloths rung out of hot water dry as possible. 
For swollen joints that are not especially painful a blister 
gives more satisfactory results. 

249 



250 VETERINARY STUDIES 

POSTERIOR PARALYSIS 

This is a rather common and serious disease affecting 
especially swine and involving the hind quarters. In most 
cases it is probably a disorder of either the spinal cord or 
the spinal nerves. 

Causes. — Fracture of the thigh bone sometimes occurs 
in connection with rachitis (rickets), and is mistaken for 
paralysis. Rachitis, a disease of the bones, may appear, like 
paralysis, in growing swine. Some cases are due to injury 
of the spinal cord. This disease often appears in heavy 
hogs after shipment by rail. Other cases are due to slow 
organic disease of the spinal cord. The direct cause of 
those cases which depend upon organic diseases of the cord 
or spinal nerves is not known. A common type develops 
suddenly in old and heavy swine, particularly those in high 
flesh, and is due to simple constipation. 

Symptoms. — Some cases develop suddenly; others de- 
velop gradually during several days and even weeks. The 
cases which develop slowly show at first irregular gait be- 
hind. The hind legs may cross in walking; there is diffi- 
culty in rising and general lack of control for the hind legs. 

If the case develops suddenly, there is inability to use 
the hind limbs, which are limp and weak, not unlike affected 
limbs of horses having azoturia. Hogs affected with this 
disease usually retain good appetite, and are lively aside 
from the posterior paralysis. They are apparently in good 
health for weeks, having perfect control of the front limbs. 
If they move at all, the hind limbs are simply dragged. 
This trouble is easily distinguished from rheumatism in 
most cases by absence of pain. 

Treatment. — A decided physic, 10 to 20 grains of calomel 
in a small piece of pork; or 2 oz. castor oil with 2 drops of 
croton oil, well mixed. If the case is persistent and the 
animal valuable, then potassium iodide should be given in 
10-grain doses 3 times a day, either as a drench or in 
the drink. Turpentine should be applied over the loins 
until the skin becomes sore. 



I 



COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE ^ 251 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS 

This is a rather common affliction and very apt to be fatal. 
It is simply an engorgement of the pulmonary blood vessels 
(hypersemia). 

Cause. — Active exercise of swine in high flesh. 

Symptoms. — These cases are usually acute and apt to 
end fatally. The symptoms are those of suffocation. 
There is marked distress; respiration is very rapid, even 
the mouth being held open in an effort to get air. The 
pulse is very rapid and weak, and the animal is apt to fall 
suddenly. 

On examination post mortem the pulmonary vessels are 
engorged and the lungs are dark. There is no definite exu- 
date which distinguishes this from pneumonia, pneumonia 
being an inflammation of the lung tissues. 

Treatment. — Stimulant : Use aromatic spirits ammonia 
1 dram, alcohol 4 drams, in water, repeated at short in- 
tervals; for example, 15 minutes to one half hour. The 
animal must be kept warm and the extremities rubbed 
vigorously. 

CONSTIPATION IN SWINE 

Constipation is a rather frequent cause of trouble among 
swine. Mature hogs become easily affected when unwisely 
fed and limited as to exercise. 

Cause. — This trouble is very frequently associated with 
high feeding and lack of exercise. This is especially true 
when the food is dry and lacking in laxative material. 
Hogs are rarely affected by this when on grass or clover 
or when receiving roots or pumpkins or other fresh vege- 
tables in the feeding yards. 

Symptoms. — The affected hog is restless, and occasionally 
strains as though trying to pass manure. The manure is 
hard and frequently covered with mucus. The hog becomes 
dull and loses appetite. 

Treatment. — Give 1 to 3 ounces of castor oil, depending 
on the size of the hog, or as a substitute for the oil give 



252 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Epsom salts, in 1 to 3 ounce doses dissolved in warm water 
and administered as a drench. One to 3 drops of croton 
oil may be added to the castor oil in unusual cases. For 
mild cases of simple constipation old-fashioned senna tea, 
coupled with rectal injections of warm water, is usually very 
satisfactory. It is necessary to exercise great caution in 
giving liquid medicine to hogs on account of the danger 
of suffocation caused by drawing liquid into the lungs 
while squealing. 

A very simple way is to cut a hole in the toe of an old 
shoe; insert the toe into the mouth, and allow the hog to 
chew it while the medicine is poured in slowly and carefully. 
A short piece of ordinary garden hose with a funnel in- 
serted at one end is also very satisfactory for this purpose. 

After relief has been secured by medicine, then the re- 
currence of this trouble should be prevented in the future 
by wiser feeding and abundant exercise. 

QUINSY 

Symptoms. — There is a marked sore throat. The neck 
is swollen back of and beneath the lower jaw. There is 
difficult respiration. Prognosis is usually favorable. 

Treatment. — Hot fomentations around the swollen neck, 
and the following prescription may be given internally: 
Fluid extract belladonna 20 drops, chlorate of potash 10 
grains, 3 times a day in 2 oz. water. 

SUGGESTIONS 

Drenching swine. — Put a piece of rubber hose on the 
neck of bottle, give medicine slowly and cautiously, and if 
possible when the animal is not squealing. The animal may 
either be thrown down and held, or tied, or a loop may be 
passed around the upper jaw back of the front teeth and 
held by a turn around a post; but in this case, medicines 
must be given with great care. 

Black teeth. — Black teeth in young pigs are not of 
serious importance, so far as the teeth are concerned. 



LECTURE LII 
OBSTETRICS 

Obstetrics is the science which deals with the birth of 
young animals. 

The female organs studied in obstetrics are: ovaries, 
Fallopian tubes, vagina, and uterus. 

Ovaries. — These are two small, more or less flattened, 
spherical organs, suspended in the front part of the broad 
ligament (see uterus) in the sublumbar region. In the cow 
and mare they are about the size of hulled walnuts. Their 
function is to develop, mature, and discharge the ovules or 
eggs. 

Fallopian tubes. — Two slender tubes connect the ovaries, 
one on each side, with the horns of the uterus. Ovules or 
eggs pass through these tubes on their way to the uterus. 

Uterus (womb). — The uterus is a muscular and mem- 
branous sack, very large in pregnant animals, located 
partly in the pelvic cavity and partly in the abdominal 
cavity. 

Structure. — The womb consists of three layers or coats : 
(a) outer or peritoneal; (b) middle, muscular; (c) inner, 
mucous. 

The outer coat (a) is the thin, delicate, glistening mem- 
brane, peritoneum, which lines the entire abdominal cavity 
and covers with another layer every organ within that 
cavity. 

The middle coat (h) is composed of two distinct sets of 
muscle fibers. The outer fibers extend lengthwise, and the 
inner ones around the uterus. The muscular coat gives 
strength and support to the womb and aids in expelling 
the fetus at birth. 

253 



254 



VETERINARY STUDIES 



The inner coat (c) is a mucous membrane and very similar 
to that which hues the mouth and whole alimentary canal. 
This coat has especial physiological importance, since it 
provides for early nourishment of the ovum and later 
develops the maternal placenta. It is the placenta which 
gives the bond of union between the mother and fetus 
during pregnancy. 

Shape. — ■ The body of the uterus is cylindrical and 
divides in front into two branches. Each branch connects 
with a Fallopian tube and through that with the ovary. 
The body of the uterus narrows behind to a neck which 
projects into the vagina. The rectum is above the uterus, 
and the bladder below it. 

Supports. — The uterus is held in place by four ligaments 
which are mainly folds of the peritoneum. The most im- 
portant of these are 
the broad ligaments. 
These are two wide 
folds of the peritoneum 
which extend the 
whole length of the 
body of the uterus 
and its horns, one on 
each side. They at- 
tach in the sublum- 
bar region above, and 
to the sides of the 
uterus below. A third 
ligament attaches 
above to the rectum, 
and a fourth below to 
the floor of the pelvis. These four Hgaments all give sup- 
port to the uterus and hold it in position. 

Openings. — There are three openings into the uterus : 
one behind into the vagina; two in front for the Fallopian 
tubes. 

Function. — The function of the uterus is to receive and 




Fig. 81. — Generative Organs of the Mare, 
1, ovaries ; 2, Fallopian tubes ; 6, horn of uterus 
intact ; 7, horn of uterus laid open ; 8, body of 
uterus ; 9, broad ligament ; 10, cervix or neck 
of the uterus ; 13, outlet of the urethra. 



OBSTETRICS 255 

nourish the ovum and mature it after it has been fertiUzed. 

The ovum attaches to the uterine wall; a covering and 
supporting membrane is developed around it; and there the 
fetus develops, receiving a rich supply of oxygen and food 
materials from the maternal uterine walls, through the 
surrounding membranes, by osmosis. 

Vagina. — This is a membranous tube which contains 
much muscular tissue in its walls. 

Structure. — There are three coats : (a) outer of loose con- 
nective tissue; (6) middle, muscular; (c) inner, mucous. 

Location. — The vagina is located in the pelvis between 
the rectum above and the floor of the pelvis below. It is 
capable of great dilation to allow the passage of the young 
at birth. Between the uterus and vagina the connection 
or common opening is through the neck, at which point 
the uterus narrows greatly and is composed of firmer tissue. 
As the time for delivery approaches, this narrow canal 
dilates until the opening is large enough for the young 
animal to pass through. 

Normal period of gestation. — This varies from two years 
in the elephant to 28 days in the rabbit. The cow carries 
young 283 days; mare, 345 days; sow, 119 days; ewe, 149 
days. All these may vary greatly. Old animals usually 
carry longer than young. 

ACCIDENTS OF PREGNANCY 

Most important. — The most serious are : (a) abortion ; 
(h) retention of the fetus; (c) volvulus (twist in the neck 
of the uterus). 

(a) Abortion. — For the purpose of this lesson, abortion 
may be defined as any premature birth. 

They are either (1) sporadic or (2) infectious. 

(1) Sporadic abortions may be due to a great variety of 
conditions; e.g. sudden change in the weather and exposure 
to cold; strong medicines, especially purgatives; mechani- 
cal injuries; sudden and unaccustomed exercise; extreme 



256 



VETERINARY STUDIES 




nervous excitement; diseases accompanied ^ by cough or 
severe pain or high fever; ergot, smut, etc., on the food; 

water containing 
sewage; disease of 
the uterus; lack of 
constitutional vigor 
in either sire or dam. 
(2) Infe ctio u s 
abortion is probably 
due to a distinct 
contagium; i.e. to 
the action of living 
germs upon the 
uterus and placental 
membranes. Cer- 
tain conditions of 
the atmosphere, 
diet, and vitality 
may favor the out- 
break. 
Infectious abortion does not spread rapidly through a 
herd, but the cases come at intervals throughout the season 
of pregnancy until a large percentage of the herd may have 
aborted. 

Preventive treatment. — In case of sporadic abortion, the 
uterus can sometimes be quieted and a threatened abortion 
prevented by the early administration of tincture of opium 
and f . e. viburnum given as follows : — 



Fig. 82. 



■Fetus and Fetal Membranes of the 
Cow AT Mid-pregnancy. 



Uterus opened on the right side, exposing fetus 
and membranes. Note the small, light-colored bodies 
(cotyledons) which connect uterus and membranes. 
See also Fig. 83. A, uterus ; B, cervix (neck of 
uterus). 





Cow OR Mare 


Sheep 


Tine, opium 

F. E. viburnum prunifolium . . 
SiruD 


2oz. 

3oz. 

10 oz. 


2 dra,TnR 

3 drams 
2 oz. 







Repeat every two hours until the patient is quiet or the 
abortion occurs, and keep the cow under the influence of 
these medicines for several days, greatly reducing the opium 



OBSTETRICS 257 

as soon as the urgent symptoms have passed. Small and 
frequently repeated doses of oil may be needed to prevent 
and overcome the constipating effect of opium. 

General prevention. — When a case of abortion occurs in 
any herd or flock^ begin a search for the cause. If this 
cause continues in operation, a large number of animals 
may become affected. The animal that has already aborted 
should be removed at once from the shed or stable where 
others are confined. All fetal membranes and discharges 
from the vagina must be burned or buried, and the stall 
where the abortion occurred should be disinfected with 
5 per cent crude carbolic acid. A special attendant should 
take care of animals that have aborted, if there is any possi- 
bility that they have had the infectious type of this disease. 

Symptoms. — Symptoms of approaching abortion are 
frequently obscure. Sometimes there is a discharge from 
the vagina. This organ is swollen and the mucous mem- 
brane may be deeply congested. Slight labor pains some- 
times appear several hours before the fetus is expelled and 
before the sac is ruptured. Occasionally the animal may be 
noticed moving around uneasily. Ligaments at the tail 
head on each side relax and drop. The udder develops 
prematurely, especially noticed in heifers. 

General results of abortion. — The afterbirth is frequently 
retained and slow blood poisoning may ensue in the ab- 
sence of skillful treatment. Garget may appear, which 
seems to be associated with the condition of the uterus, 
probably by transfer of infection from the discharge. The 
appetite is impaired or lost. The patient loses flesh and 
gets very weak and thin and may come in heat frequently, 
but does not become pregnant again for a long time, or 
remains barren. 



LECTURE LIII 
INFECTIOUS ABORTION 

Causes. — It seems very probable that infectious abor- 
tion is due to living microorganisms, i.e. to bacteria. It 
is very possible that several different germs are capable of 
causing this disease. If this be true, then we do not have 
a specific disease due to a specific germ. 

Dissemination. — It is evident that this disease may be 
spread in many ways. The afterbirth, discharges from the 
womb and vagina, and manure of very young calves are 
probably all infectious. The disease may be transmitted 
directly at the time of service from male to female. It is 
conceivable that a cow which has aborted and whose tail 
is contaminated with discharge might very easily infect 
another cow by simply switching her tail so as to strike 
the hind quarters of an adjoining cow. 

A cow may abort one or more times, then become im- 
mune and carry her future calves to full term, but remain 
infectious for an indefinite period, and thus prove a very 
serious, because unsuspected, source of spread. There are 
many cases on record where the disease has been intro- 
duced into a sound herd by a bull from a diseased herd or 
by a home bull which has been allowed to serve infected 
cows in other herds. This disease is easily introduced by 
the purchase of an infected cow from a herd in which the 
disease has prevailed. In this case the disease would ordi- 
narily spread from the infected cow to the herd bull and 
from the herd bull to the previously healthy cows of the 
home herd. 

258 



INFECTIOUS ABORTION 259 

Method of infection. — There are probably various 
methods of infection. Infecting material may reach the 
genital organs of the healthy female. There is some evi- 
dence that the disease may be contracted through food 
and by inoculation, i.e. in cuts or abrasions of the skin. 
The disease appears to have been transmitted experimentally 
by artificial inoculation into veins. 

Effect. — A serious percentage of cows which abort 
subsequently become sterile. Most cows do not abort more 
than twice and thereafter become immune, producing 
healthy calves at full term, but remaining infectious. Con- 
tamination with the virus of abortion may result in direct 
abortion, or the calf may die and become mummified, or be 
born at or near full term weak and predisposed to diarrhea. 
Cows which abort are very apt to be unthrifty for a very 
long time. Many of them contract infection of the udder, 
probably from vaginal discharge, leading to a serious gar- 
get, and there may be a condition of general septicaemia or 
blood poisoning. 

Diagnosis. — We have first the history of an unusual 
number of cows in a herd dropping their calves prematurely. 
Frequently the -vaginal discharge which accompanies abor- 
tion is dirty in appearance and of a foul odor. The mucous 
membrane of the vagina frequently becomes congested and 
the lips of the vulva swollen several days before abortion 
occurs. A tendency to abortion, especially in heifers, is 
usually indicated by marked premature development of the 
udder, and the ligaments at the tail head on each side 
relax and drop. 

Prevention. — It is necessary to bear in mind the prob- 
able cause of this disease and the common methods of dis- 
semination. A farmer owning a healthy herd should, for 
instance, never purchase cattle of breeding age from a herd 
in which this disease has occurred within three years. He 
should not do public service with a herd bull where there is 
possibility of contamination, nor should he use a neighbor's 
bull that can possibly be contaminated with this infection. 



260 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Management of an aborting herd. — Abortion should not 
be allowed to occur in the herd stable if it can be avoided. 
The calf and afterbirth should be buried deeply or^ better 
still, be burned. Floors and partitions and other con- 
taminated surfaces should be carefully disinfected. In case 
the calf is mature enough to survive, its manure should be 
treated as though it were certainly infectious. 

Some outbreaks of what seems to be infectious abortion 
are apparently gotten rid of very easily under treatment 
which would not appeal to an experienced veterinarian or 
bacteriologist as amounting to anything; but as a rule very 
painstaking work, long continued, is essential to any assur- 
ance of success. An owner should not undertake the treat- 
ment of a considerable number of animals unless they are 
sufficiently valuable to make it worth while, nor without 
realizing that he has a hard task ahead of him. The general 
method here recommended for eradication of infection is 
based on present information. It is quite likely that we 
shall have much additional light on this disease within a 
few years which will enable us to change and simplify very 
much our methods. 

Divide the herd into two groups; namely, cattle to keep 
in the herd, and cattle that should be sold for slaughter. 
Sell all females that have ever been bred and which are 
not valuable enough to justify a large amount of work 
and some expense. Cows that have ever aborted and bulls 
that have served such cows should be sold only for slaughter. 

Non-pregnant females over one year of age which have 
not recently aborted should have one internal disinfection 
(a) and one external disinfection (h) daily for four weeks, 
and thereafter twice a week for four weeks more. 

Pregnant cows should be disinfected internally once a 
week until within a month of calving. Disinfect these ex- 
ternally twice a week until they calve, and give carbolic 
acid internally. 

Cows that have recently aborted should have the womb 
irrigated, using a gallon or more of warm solution daily for 



I 



INFECTIOUS ABORTION 261 

a week; thereafter once a week as long as the womb re- 
mains sufficiently open. For this irrigation use internal 
disinfecting solution (a) injected directly into the womb. 
This is for all cows that have aborted and are to be saved 
for breeding. The afterbirth and all discharge must be 
deeply buried or burned. 

When a cow has aborted^ the afterbirth should be re- 
moved within 48 hours if it will come away easily. If it 
does not come away easily, then irrigate the uterus freely 
with a warm internal disinfection (a) twice daily until it 
does come away. After this, continue irrigation in retained 
afterbirth cases once a day as long as the opening of the 
womb permits. Cows that have aborted should not be 
bred in less than three months, and in no case until the dis- 
charge has ceased for at least a month. 

Males should be used with great caution. For cows that 
have never aborted use a bull that has had no chance for 
infection, the bull to be disinfected internally before and 
after each service ; use a different bull for cows that have 
aborted, he also to be disinfected internally before and 
after service, but with a different piece of tubing and nozzle. 
Bulls known to be infected should be irrigated once daily 
for four weeks, and after this period before and after each 
service. 

DISINFECTION 

Internal disinfection (a) as used here (except where 
reference is made to womb of cows that have recently 
aborted) means injection into the vagina for females and 
into the sheath for males. External disinfection (b) for 
cows means around and under the tail and between the 
thighs. External disinfection for bulls means the outside 
of the sheath, especially around the opening. 

For internal disinfection use .75 per cent lysol or creolin, 
warm. For very sensitive cows it is advisable to begin 
the internal disinfection at .25 per cent or even with plain 
water and increase gradually to the .75 per cent. A con- 
tainer and a few feet of ^-inch rubber tubing with a funnel 



262 VETERINARY STUDIES 

and a short smooth nozzle of some kind is all that is neces- 
sary for apparatus. A nozzle is not necessary if the tub- 
ing is fairly rigid. An ordinary horse stomach tube is a 
very satisfactory tubing for cows^ and a horse catheter may 
be used with the best satisfaction for bulls in place of 
rubber tubing and nozzle. A simple container for gravity 
apparatus^ very convenient and cheap^ may be made from 
a large galvanized iron pail with a stopcock at the bottom. 
An old-fashioned '^ shotgun '' milk can is an ideal container, 
since it is already fitted with stopcock at the bottom and 
has a glass gauge at the side where the amount given each 
animal may be easily read off as the fluid lowers in the can. 
The container may be very conveniently held by an ordi- 
nary snap sliding on an overhead wire extending across 
the stable back of the cows. 

For external disinfection use lysol or creolin 3 per cent, or 
corrosive sublimate 1 to 1000, or carbolic acid 5 per cent, in 
water. 

Stables. — Manure should be removed and used so that 
it cannot carry infection to pregnant cows. Feed for cows 
that are pregnant or about to become pregnant must not 
be contaminated by discharges from aborting cows, or by 
manure from calves born of aborting cows when the calves 
may be mature enough to live. 

For disinfection, the cow stable should have litter cleaned 
out of the mangers and stalls; walls, partition, floors, etc., 
should be scrubbed by means of a broom and plenty of 
water and be then disinfected by means of corrosive sub- 
limate, 1 to 1000 in water, or copper sulphate, 5 oz. to 
a gallon of water, or, better still, by corrosive sublimate in 
fresh whitewash in the proportion of 1 lb. corrosive sub- 
limate to 1000 lbs. of water (125 gallons). 

MEDICAL TREATMENT 

All pregnant cows in an aborting herd should have car- 
bolic acid mixed with ground feed. Large doses of carbolic 
acid continued for a long time have seemed to give the 
writer good results in aborting herds and in some cases 



INFECTIOUS ABORTION 263 

where abortion seemed actuall}^ threatened. Begin with 
one dram of carboHc acid per day per 1000 lbs. weight. 
Dissolve the acid in 4 oz. of water and thoroughly mix it 
with feed to avoid burning the mouth. Increase this dose 
in about 10 days gradually to 4 or even 6 drams a day in 
a pint or pint and a half of water^ giving the larger dose in 
2 or 3 feeds. Continue this for a month. Thereafter give 
this dose (4 to 6 drams) daily for 10 consecutive days each 
month until the cow calves^ and make the treatment periods 
regular. There should be not less than one pound feed (dry) 
to each dram carbolic acid. 

In order to avoid having cows in full flow of milk refuse 
a feed or two while they are getting accustomed to the 
acid; it is worth while to begin with a much smaller dose 
than indicated. After cattle become accustomed to carbolic 
acid, they apparently do not dislike it, but rather like the 
flavor. 

In our experimental work we have given very large 
quantities of carbolic acid without apparent harm, much 
larger quantities than the doses here recommended. 

It is very convenient for this treatment to make up 3 
per cent solution carbolic acid in w^ter; 4 oz. of 
solution contains one dram carbolic acid. In the summer 
time when cattle are on pasture, or at any time when it is 
advisable to cut down the grain ration to a point where 
the bulk would not be sufficient to properly dilute the acid, 
then this medicine may be easily given by drench. 

It frequently occurs that in aborting herds there are a 
number of barren cows; some have aborted and thereafter 
remain sterile; others have been infected without abortion 
and subsequently remain sterile. Many of these cases can 
be induced to breed by suitable internal disinfection. Cows 
in an aborting herd that fail to breed should be disinfected 
internally (a) once daily for a month and thereafter twice 
a week until they are safely in calf. In case a cow is to 
be served within 10 or 12 hours after receiving internal 
disinfection, the vagina should first be flushed out freely 
with warm water or warm water with a little soda. 



LECTURE LIV 
OBSTETRICS 

ACCIDENTS OF PREGNANCY 

(b) Retention of the fetus. — This trouble is most com- 
mon in cows. The period of retention may vary from 
normal up to five years. A fetus may be alive in the cow 
for at least a year from pregnancy, it may be dead and 
mummified, or it may decompose. Aged mares sometimes 
carry far beyond the normal period for delivery and then 
give normal birth. 

Symptoms. — The mother may show labor pains at 
normal time and all other symptoms of parturition may 
be present. The symptoms disappear and the cow goes on 
as if non-pregnant, but does not usually come in heat. 

Causes. — Partial paralysis of the uterus; excessive ad- 
hesions between fetus and uterus; deformed pelvis; tor- 
sion of uterus, etc. 

Treatment. — At normal period of delivery dilate the 
neck of the uterus with the aid of belladonna ointment and 
gentle mechanical force, and deliver the calf. If the cow 
has gone safely past this period, then fatten and sell her for 
beef. 

(c) Volvulus (or twist). — A twist sometimes occurs in 
the neck of the uterus and makes delivery exceedingly 
difficult. 

It is much more common in the cow than in the mare, 
and usually occurs near the termination of pregnancy. 

Cause. — It may be caused by the patient slipping or 
falling, and especiall}^ if she rolls over, late in the period of 
pregnancy. Some authors think it may be due to active 

264 



OBSTETRICS 



265 



and unusual movements of the fetus. It can only be 
diagnosed positively by examination with the hand and 
finding a twist in the neck of the uterus. 

Treatment. — If the twist is slight, the operator may be 
able to reduce it by introducing the hand into the uterus 
and grasping some portion of the fetus and causing the 
uterus to unwind by a strong twisting motion. Sometimes 
it is necessary to throw the cow or mare, then introduce 
the hand, grasp firmly one or more limbs of the fetus, and 
have the cow rolled in the opposite direction from the 
twist, holding firmly to the fetus meanwhile. If the opera- 
tor can succeed in getting his hand into the uterus, and 
especially if he can geti one or more fetal limbs through the 
neck of the uterus, the twist may usually be reduced. Some 
of these cases, however, are exceedingly difficult to handle. 



ACCIDENTS OF PARTURITION 

The most common are: (a) germ infection; {h) inversion 
of the uterus; (c) tear in the vagina; {d) retention of fetal 
membranes; {e) hemor- 
rhage; (/) mammitis 
(garget). 

(a) Germ infection of 
the female genital or- 
gans may cause blood 
poisoning. When in- 
troducing the hand or 
any other foreign body, 
be sure that it has not 
recently touched what 
is dead or putrefying 
or otherwise infected. 

(h) Inversion of the 
uterus. — This is most 
common in the cow, and may be partial or complete. There 
may also be partial eversion of the bladder and vagina. 




Fig. 83. — Bovine Cotyledons. 

A, pedicle of uterine cotyledon ; B, B, uterine 
cotyledon ; D, fetal cotyledon ; E, fetal mem- 
brane. 



266 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Causes. — This may be due to excessive force used in 
aiding delivery, or failure of the uterus to contract after 
delivery. 

Treatment. — Thoroughly cleanse the protruding uterus 
with hot water and invert over the hand and arm. Be 
careful to smooth out each fold and leave the uterus in a 
natural position. If the uterus is greatly swollen and 
heavy, bathe in cold astringent solutions, like strong alum 
water, until the size is sufficiently reduced to permit re- 
placement. A common washtub is very convenient for 
bathing the soiled and swollen uterus. 

Bandaging very firmly with a wide roller of muslin forces 
out much of the blood, reduces the bulk, and allows han- 
dling of the uterus without injury. The bandage should be 
wide, and rolled from both ends. 

To put on the bandage, begin with the middle of the 
bandage at the end of the uterus and carry the ends around 
in opposite directions, pulling firmly all the time so as to 
force the blood back into the general circulation. In very 
troublesome cases it may be advisable to first throw a cow 
carefully, then hoist her hind parts by pulleys and ropes 
until only the shoulders and neck rest upon the floor. The 
rope should be attached by hopples or otherwise just above 
the ankles, and suitable provision made so as to avoid injury 
to the skin and underlying parts. A good hopple strap 
will usually do very well. Ordinary rope could be used 
with several thicknesses of heavy cloth or a flat pad of 
oakum inside of the rope to protect the skin. In this 
position the uterus of a very troublesome case may usually 
be replaced easily, and no harm is done to the cow if she is 
carefully handled. After replacing, it is sometimes advis- 
able to pack the uterus with cotton and close the outlet by 
means of sutures through the vulva, or to put on a rope 
truss. 

Finally give the cow 3 oz. tincture of opium and 2 oz. 
bromide of potassium in J pint of sirup. Give a mare 
two thirds of this dose and the ewe one eighth. Repeat 



OBSTETRICS 267 

the dose in three hours if the animal is still straining. If 
necessary^ apply rope truss as shown in classroom. 

(c) Tear in vagina. — A vagina may be torn above or 
below by excessive size of the fetus, by faulty position of 
the fetus, or by excessive force used in delivery. This 
calls for immediate operation by a veterinarian, and the 
injury is much more dangerous for the mare than for the 
cow. 

(d) Retention of the afterbirth. — This trouble is most 
common in cows, but is less serious for cows than for mares. 

Cause. — Retention is much more common in cows than 
mares or other classes of stock. This trouble is caused by 
unusual adhesions between the placenta and the womb, and 
is probably due in most cases to mechanical imprisonment 
of the placental tufts in the corresponding cavities of 
maternal cotyledons. 

There is normally a short period of exhaustion following 
delivery. After this period the uterus should soon recover 
its normal tone and expel the afterbirth and accompanying 
fluids. If the exhaustion period of the uterus and a con- 
dition of general debility be abnormal and therefore expul- 
sion of the placenta (afterbirth) does not occur promptly, 
then infection followed by inflammation develops, and the 
incarceration and retention follow. Note the probable order 
of development : infection, inflammation with the accom- 
panying swelling, and then adhesion. 

Treatment. — For the mare the placenta should be re- 
moved within twelve hours if it fails to come away naturally. 

For the cow it is better to examine soon after delivery. 
If the afterbirth can be removed easily and without hemor- 
rhage, then the sooner it is removed, the better. If there is 
any reason to think infection is especially liable to occur, 
e.g.y from a dead fetus, or from injury in delivery, then it 
is usually wise to remove the afterbirth immediately. 

Everything in this work must be done with a view to 
surgical cleanliness. First, irrigate the vagina with an 
antiseptic and disinfect the surrounding external parts. 



268 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Try to remove all placenta. As a rule it is wiser to not 
remove any placenta than to merely tear off the free por- 
tion of it. 

Twist the membranes that appear outside; then intro- 
duce an oiled hand into the uterus and gently separate the 
placenta from its uterine adhesions^ pulling with the other 
hand outside. 

If a cow's afterbirth does not come away easily and com- 
pletely and there be no urgent reason for removal, then the 
treatment should be directed against extension of infection. 
Free uterine and vaginal irrigations once a day are indi- 
cated. For this purpose, we may use .5 per cent creolin 
or .5 per cent warm lysol injected freely by means of a 
funnel and rubber tubing or otherwise. If the uterus does 
not expel the fluid, then it should be siphoned out. 

A good authority (Williams) recommends iodoform after 
the irrrigation and expulsion of the fluid, and suggests that 
the iodoform may be inserted in a capsule and the capsule 
either left to dissolve or the capsule may be opened and the 
powder scattered by the hand. It would seem that this 
might be accomplished by a long nozzle powder blower. 
The purpose of this is, of course, to check the development 
of infective organisms during the periods between irrigation. 

The patient should be examined from time to time, and 
it will usually be found after a number of irrigations 
with warm antiseptic that the inflammation has subsided 
and the afterbirth has been released and will come away 
easily. In some cases of retained afterbirth there develops 
a rapid necrosis (tissue death) of the maternal cotyledons, 
in which case the cotyledons themselves may come away 
quite easily with the afterbirth and their removal cause no 
additional harm and even be of benefit in such a case. 
This condition should also be followed by free antiseptic 
irrigation, as already suggested. 

(e) Hemorrhage. — This is rare in the lower animals. It 
is denoted by rapidly increasing paleness around the eyes 
and in the mouth and by quick, feeble pulse. Blood may 



OBSTETRICS 269 

not appear on the outside, and yet the bleeding be extensive. 
Give 3 oz. F. E. ergot at once, in 4 oz. sirup, and then 
give 1 oz. ergot in 2 oz. sirup every hour if necessary, up 
to a hmit of six doses; meantime pour ice water over the 
back and loins. 

GARGET 

Garget is an inflammation of the gland tissue and other 
structures composing the udder. Some congestion and 
hardening of the udder is probably to be considered normal 
when it occurs at about the time of parturition. 

Caues. — Garget proper (mammitis or mastitis), usually, 
and possibly always, is caused directly by germ infection. 
Germs probably gain entrance in most cases through the 
milk ducts of the teats. There is great variation in the 
severity of these cases. Some cases of garget are very mild, 
and some lead to rapid loss of the udder. 

We beheve that many cases of garget come as a result of 
infection from retained afterbirth, or from some purulent 
discharge from the vagina. The infection from a retained 
afterbirth or from the vaginal discharge becomes smeared 
upon the teat; some germs gain entrance into the milk 
canal, where they find favorable conditions for multiplica- 
tion and rapid extension up the milk canal into the udder. 
S©me cases receive their infection from the hands of milkers 
coming from other cows which have such infectious ma- 
terial upon the teats or the udder. Many cases of garget 
have their infection carried into the milk duct by milk 
tubes. 

S5miptoms. — The symptoms of garget are the usual 
symptoms of inflammation in any organs : i.e. pain, heat, 
redness, and swelling. This is one of the easiest of ail dis- 
eases of live stock to recognize. 

Results. — Garget usually leaves a damaged udder. In 
some cases the damage may be extreme and in other cases 
slight, but it is probable that few cases are ever restored 
completely to normal. The injury to the milk-gland 



270 VETERINARY STUDIES 

structure includes various tissue degenerations, hardening 
and permanent enlargement, abscess, or gangrene. De- 
velopment of gangrene may be detected by noting that 
the part which has previously been hot and tender becomes 
cold, dark in color, and insensitive. 

Prevention. — Cows that are wisely fed seem much less 
liable to udder troubles at the time of calving. Heavy 
milkers especially should not be heavily fed during the last 
period of pregnancy. The food should be laxative in char- 
acter, and. this same method of feeding should be continued 
until about the fourth day after calving, when the grain 
ration may be gradually increased, the cow being put on 
feed very gradually for several days more. 

In case of a valuable cow that has just calved it is wise 
to disinfect the udder and teat with 1 to 1000 bichloride in 
water, which may be washed off with plain water if the 
calf is allowed to suck. If possible, this disinfection should 
be given before any milk is drawn after calving, and should 
be kept up for a week in case of a valuable cow. It seems 
that the cow's udder is most liable to this trouble during 
the first week or so after calving. After the milk flow is 
fully established and regular milking is done, there does 
not seem to be so much danger of garget. 

Milk tubes do very much more harm than good as a rule, 
and should never be used except when absolutely neces- 
sary. Tubes should be used only after thorough disinfection 
of the teat and boiling of the tube. The latter must not 
be handled in any way so as to infect the portion which is 
to enter the teat. Care should be exercised about milking 
a cow with hands that have been contaminated from puru- 
lent discharges of any kind or with any kind of infectious 
material. 

Milkers should clean their hands thoroughly for the sake 
of simple cleanliness and pure milk, if for no other reason, 
and in addition for the very good reason that they are 
liable to carry on their hands infection which may cause 
garget in the udder of valuable cows. 



OBSTETRICS 271 

Treatment. — The diet throughout a case of garget 
should be light and laxative. Very light feeding during 
the last few weeks before calving is good preventive treat- 
ment in any case. 

If the case threatens to be serious, give internally fluid 
extract of belladonna, 2 drams, with fluid extract of Phy- 
tolacca, 1 ounce, four times a day in a little water. This 
may check considerably the milk flow and in this serve a 
useful purpose. Give also nitrate of potash (saltpeter), 
2 ounces at a dose, with ^ pound Epsom salts, three times 
a day, each dose dissolved in a quart of water. 

For external treatment of the udder apply hot water 
freely for long periods of time; e.g. twice a day 2 or 3 
hours at each treatment. The water should be used as 
hot as it can be borne, without injury to the skin, and should 
be used very freely. This hot-water treatment may be 
given to good advantage by putting a sling around the 
cow's body under the udder and in front of the hips to 
support the udder. Four holes may be cut for the teats, 
and woollen cloths or cotton or oakum should be packed 
around the udder inside of the sling to hold the heat and 
moisture. The hot water can then be poured in from 
above or be thrown against the packing from below by 
means of a small dipper. The point is to treat the udder 
with moist heat for a long period of time. 

After each water treatment rub the udder dry and apply 
the following ointment: Belladonna extract, 2 parts; vase- 
line, 8 parts; melted together. As the mixture cools, add 
one part camphor. Long-continued moderate rubbing and 
handling of the udder is beneficial. This is best accom- 
plished by a combined rubbing and gentle kneading action 
upon the udder with the hands. This massage, if not un- 
reasonably severe, is helpful, and should be given freely 
several times a day and for 5 or 10 minutes at each treat- 
ment. 



LECTURE LV ' 

OBSTETRICS — DIFFICULT PARTURITION 

Nature's plan. — When the dehvery occurs according to 
nature's evident plan, the ligaments of the pelvis relax; the 
water bag appears through the neck of the uterus and 
finally outside the vagina; the neck and vagina gradually 
dilate to accommodate the fetus, which presents first the 
apex of a wedge or cone. 

Normal presentations. — We recognize two normal presen- 
tations, viz., the anterior, in which the two front feet and 
the nose appear with the fetus resting upon its sternum, 
and the posterior, in which the two hind legs and tail appear 
with the fetus resting on the sternum. 

Variations from these produce more or less difficulty in 
delivery, according as the -presentation differs more or less 
from the normal. 

The cause of difficulty may lie with either the mother or 
fetus, more commonly with the latter. 

If the fault lies with the mother, it is usually because of 
premature delivery; extreme narrowness and closeness of 
the pelvic outlet; volvulus; deformities of the pelvis 
(sometimes fracture) ; tumors within the pelvis ; induration 
or hardening of the uterine neck. Sometimes there is com- 
plete closure, and sometimes the trouble is due to excessive 
accumulations of fat within the pelvis. 

If the fault lies with the fetus, it is because of faulty 
presentations, excessive size, monstrosities, or deformities of 
the fetus. 

Common faulty presentations. — Faulty anterior presen- 
tations may be: head, or head and neck doubled back; two 

272 



OBSTETRICS — DIFFICULT PARTURITION 273 

feet, or feet and legs back; the neck and one front iimb; 
or the neck and both front Hmbs back. 

Faulty posterior presentation may be : one limb back and 
doubled at the hock or stifle; both limbs back with one 
flexed at each -of these points, or both flexed at the same 
joint, which may be either hock or stifle. 

ASSISTANCE 

What may be needed. — There is probably no trouble 
with farm stock where trained and experienced veterinary 
assistance is more urgently needed. 

Call your veterinarian promptly, if one is available. 

If no competent veterinarian is available, then the 
owner must do the best he can for himself. He may need: 
plenty of bland oil, e.g. linseed^; two small window cords 
with smooth loops in one end of each to loop around limbs; 
one similar rope with short sharp hook in end to hook in 
underjaw or eye socket; a pair of small combination 
pulleys, an embryotomy knife, large trocar and canula, 
some antiseptic, e.g. creolin to be used in 4 per cent solu- 
tion for hands, instruments, and ropes. These should be 
kept on hand and ready. 

Suggestions. — Do not interfere until the water bag has 
ruptured spontaneously, unless labor pains have continued 
for several hours and the water bag does not appear. If 
the water bag ruptures, in a natural way, and the head, for 
example, should present without the feet, or the head and 
one foot, or if one hind foot presents and not the other, 
or any evidently faulty presentation occurs, then it is time 
to examine and plan for assistance. 

The first thing is to clean and oil the arm and examine 
carefully to learn the cause of trouble and position of fetus. 
Then decide what you will do and how. If the condition is 
such that the delivery will probably be long and tedious, 
wifh the patient straining violently, it may rarely be desir- 
able to abate the labor pains with tincture of opium. Other- 



274 VETERINARY STUDIES 

wise it will be much better and labor over sooner if the 
opium be not given. The rectum should also be examined 
as the hand goes into the vagina, and if distended should 
also be emptied. 

The patient should stand or lie with head downhill. It 
is usually much easier to operate with the patient standing. 
Occasionally it is of great advantage to have the patient 
on one side or the other or on her back for a time. Be 
patient and not in too great a hurry, and make up your 
mind that you will succeed, be it ever so difficult. When 
missing members are secured and ready to pull, pour plenty 
of oil, or, in the absence of oil, warm water, into the uterus, 
by means of a funnel and rubber tubing. The parts that 
will offer friction are probably dry by this time, and should 
be freely oiled or moistened. 

It is frequently necessary to shove the fetus forward into 
the uterus in order to secure and straighten some missing 
parts, and for this purpose a smooth broom handle with a 
short brad in one end will do fairly well; but the hand of 
the operator must be guarding it, for fear it will slip and 
tear the mother. This is an accident that must be carefully 
guarded against on account of probable blood poisoning. 

When one part presents, and others are to be secured, or 
when one has been secured and it is desirable to return it 
into the uterus to secure another part, always make sure 
of the progress gained by attaching one of the ropes to the 
part secured. If the patient cannot be made to stand, 
always have her on the side opposite the missing part, which 
thus comes on top. Work between labor pains, and, when 
all is clear and ready to pull, the assistance should be given 
moderately and while the mother is straining. 

Dropsies. — Sometimes the retarded delivery is due to 
large accumulations of fluid in the brain cavity (hydro- 
cephalus) of the fetus or within the abdominal cavity 
(ascites), or to a general accumulation of fluids beneath the 
skin in the connective tissue and also in the abdominal 
cavity (general dropsy). In these cases the difficulty may 



OBSTETRICS — DIFFICULT PARTURITION 275 






Fig. 84. — Presentations. (B.A.I.) 
A and B, normal ; C, D, E, F, common abnormal presentations. 



276 VETERINARY STUDIES 

be overcome by removing the fluid by tapping the brain 
and squeezing the soft bones together^ or tapping the 
abdominal cavity and allowing the fluid to escape. A 
large trocar attached to rubber tubing is very convenient 
for this operation. 

Gaseous distention. — The difficulty may be due to an 
excessive accumulation of gases within the body of a dead 
and decaying fetus, and the obvious treatment is to tap 
with trocar or knife and allow gas to escape. 

Embryotomy. — If it becomes necessary to open the fetal 
body or remove one or more of the fetal limbs, the operator 
must observe certain general precautions. 

Beware of injuring the maternal parts; be patient and 
don't be in a hurry. 

In case of twins with both presenting at the same time, 
try to force one back into the uterus and deliver one at a 
time before attempting dissection, which is usually very 
tedious, and very exhausting to the operator, and mother as 
well. 

Always save the skin and leave plenty to cover the bones 
and rough parts of the fetus, and to pull on. 

Removing afore limb. — Take the one that is presenting, 
attach cord and draw out, as far as possible; slit the skin 
from as near the top of the scapula as possible to the pastern 
by means of an embryotomy knife, and dissect the skin 
loose from the limb, largely by fingisrs, then cut last the 
skin around the pastern. Then cut the muscles between 
the limb and the sternum. By twisting and pulling at the 
same time the limb can then be removed entire, leaving the 
skin attached to the shoulder. Do the dissecting with one 
hand, while the other pulls on the skin outside. The reasons 
for not removing the skin are plain. The skin gives an 
object to pull by, and protects the parts of the mother from 
bones. It also keeps the soft parts of the fetus from roll- 
ing up when pressed against the parts of the mother; and 
finally a dissection is more easily made under than outside 
the skin. 



OBSTETRICS — DIFFICULT PARTURITION 277 

Removing the head. — If the head can be brought outside 
the vulva^ and there is good reason for removing it (which 
is not often)^ cut the skin around the neck, back of the ears, 
and dissect the skin loose from the muscles by the hand 
or by a thin spud, using the knife to cut the connective 
tissue bands that interfere, as far as the operator can reach. 
Then cut the cord on top of the neck that supports the 
head, and also the muscles around the vertebrae. Strong 
pulling and twisting on the head will usually bring away 
the head and neck, leaving a quantity of skin to cover 
remaining vertebrae and to assist in pulling. 

Removal of the hind limbs. — This is done on the same 
general principle as for the fore limb. Cut across the pelvic 
articulation of the limb on the inside so as to sever the 
ligament which holds the femur strongly to the pelvis. 
Then slit the skin from this point to the pastern. Dissect 
the skin loose from the limb, as directed for the fore limb. 
Then by strong pulling and twisting the limb can be torn 
loose at this joint. 

It is rarely necessary to remove both hind legs. With 
one out of the way the other can usually be straightened 
or the body of the fetus removed with the other straightened 
forward into the uterus. The soft organs may be removed 
from the body of the fetus if necessary, and then delivery 
be accomplished. 

Caesarian section. -^ Removal of the fetus through the 
flank or median line of the belly is done sometimes, but 
only as a last resort, more commonly and successfully done 
with cows and sows than mares. This should only be 
attempted by a medical expert, unless the plan is to save 
only the fetus. In the latter case the work must be done 
rapidly. 



LECTURE LVI 

COMMON MEDICINES 
Common measurements : 

Teaspoon holds about 1 dram (J oz.). 

Tablespoon holds about 4 drams (^ oz.). 

Dessert spoon holds about 2 drams. 

Teacup holds about 5 oz. 
Giving medicines. — Medicines may be given to domestic 
animals in the form of liquid drench, ball, in dry powder, 
or mixed with honey and molasses and smeared on the 
tongue. In giving a drench remember that a horse^s mouth 
and throat are much more sensitive and more easily burned 
or irritated than the human. Taste of the medicine before 
giving, if there is doubt about its being too strong. Powders 
should be finely pulverized, and must not be caustic or 
irritating. Balls should be in the shape of a cylinder about 
2 inches long and -I to J of an inch in diameter. They 
should be wrapped in thin paper and oiled. They must be 
reasonably soft and pliable, and the horse should be offered 
a swallow of water immediately after giving. 

Drenching. — In giving a drench the patient's head must 
not be held too high, the face should be nearly horizontal, 
with the nose just a little higher. The operator must not 
be in a hurry. The medicine should be poured in small 
quantities on top of the tongue and as far back in the 
mouth as possible, and the horse should be given plenty of 
time to swallow. If the horse is obstinate about swallow- 
ing, pour a tablespoonful of water into the nose after each 
time medicine is poured into the mouth. Medicines should 
never be given through the nose because of danger of chok- 
ing. For supporting the head to give a drench, a rope may 

278 



COMMON MEDICINES 



279 



be tied to the noseband of halter and thrown over the 
beam — never tied, but held by an assistant. Better still, a 
cloth loop may be passed around the upper jaw back of the 
front teeth and through the noseband of the halter in such 
way that it cannot slip off. This cloth loop is fastened to 
the overhead rope, which should be held — not tied. Medi- 
cines may be given when the patient is lying down, but the 
operator must be careful not to pour out any medicine 
when the patient is about to struggle — danger of choking. 
Take plenty of time. 

A bottle of rubber or horn, or a large syringe, is much 
preferable to a glass bottle, for the latter will readily break, 
and damage may be done in the mouth by the sharp pieces. 



MEDICINES 

Aloes. — Cathartic, laxative, or bitter tonic, depending 
upon the dose given. It is very rehable and satisfactory 
for horses, less so for ruminants. 
Very soluble in alcohol and boil- 
ing water, imperfectly so in cold 
water. Usually requires 15 to 20 
hours for operation. It is often 
desirable to combine it with one 
eighth to one quarter its weight of 
ginger, and should be given in con- 
junction with nux vomica in case 
the bowels are torpid. Large rec- 
tal injections of warm water may 
be given until the physic acts. 

Doses. — Cattle, 1 to 2 oz.; horses, 
2 to 8 drams; sheep, 1 to 2 drams; 
hogs, 1 to 2 drams. 

These doses may be adminis- 
tered with ginger in a ball with 
lard or molasses, or given in 
drench. 




Fig. 85. — Holding Horse's 

Head for Drenching. 

(M. H. R.) 

Note cloth loop under nose- 
band. 

water or sirup as a 



280 VETERINARY STUDIES 

Alcohol.^ — Diffusive stimulant, diuretic, reduces fever, 
antispasmodic and diaphoretic. Large doses are strongly 
narcotic. Medicinal doses check spasmodic conditions of 
involuntary muscle fibers, stimulate the heart and lungs, 
equalize circulation, and overcome extreme depression. 
Alcohol is soluble in all proportions in water, and should be 
diluted at least four times for internal use. 

Doses. — Cattle, 2 to 4 oz.; horses, 1 to 2 oz.; sheep, J 
oz.; hogs, J to J oz., given in solution and diluted as 
above. 

Boracic acid. — Nonirritating, antiseptic, nonvolatile. 
It is mainly used externally either in solution (about 3 per 
cent) or in dry powder as dressing for wounds. Sometimes 
it is used internally for colts and calves for diarrhea. Boracic 
acid is soluble in 26 parts cold water, in 3 parts boiling 
water, or in 6 parts alcohol. 

Doses. — Colts and calves take 10 to 30 grains in sirup 
three times a day. 

As an outward application for wounds and sores it may 
be mixed with half its bulk of iodoform. 

Chloroform.^ — Stimulant, antispasmodic, anodyne, anaes- 
thetic. Its stimulating effect resembles that of alcohol, but 
is less pronounced and more temporary. Applied externally, 
it evaporates rapidly and is cooling; but is very irritating 
when applied externally and prevented from evaporating. 

Chloroform is very useful in colic and other spasmodic 
conditions, given internally with 6 to 8 times its bulk of 
raw linseed oil, and well shaken. 

It is very slightly soluble in water, but dissolves freely in 
alcohol, ether, or turpentine, and is useful in spasmodic 
colic given with oil as above. 

Doses. — Horses and cattle take 4 to 8 drams repeated 
every two or three hours, if necessary, till the patient stag- 

1 A diuretic stimulates the kidneys and increases the flow of urine. 
A diaphoretic stimulates perspiration. 

An antispasmodic relieves crampy conditions, especially of involuntary 
muscle fibers. 

2 An anodyne, relieves pain. 

An anaesthetic removes sensation. 



COMMON MEDICINES 281 

gers. Sheep and hogs take |- to 1 dram repeated fre- 
quently as for horses and cattle. 

Carbolic acid. — Deodorizes, and kills germs. In strong 
solutions it is irritant, caustic, and anaesthetic. Internally 
it is at first stimulating and afterwards depressing and 
narcotic, and poisonous in sufficient dose and strength. It 
is used more commonly for external purposes, especially as 
a germicide, in 2 to 5 per cent solutions. Dilute solutions 
kill external parasites. It makes a good wash for foul sores 
and wounds from which the pus does not drain freely. 
Carbolic acid is valuable in the treatment of ringworms 
used as 10 to 15 per cent solution in glycerine or linseed oil. 

Carbolic acid is very commonly used as an antiseptic 
dressing in surgical work (2 to 5 per cent solution). It is 
usually dispensed from the drug stores as a 95 per cent 
solution of the crystallized drug. 

Dose. — Horses and cattle take internally -I- to 2 drams ; 
sheep and hogs take 10 to 30 drops, administered per mouth 
as a drench and greatly diluted. It has been used with 
apparently good results for both after treatment and pre- 
vention of infectious abortion in cattle, given as a drench. 

Iodoform. — This is used generally for external and local 
application. It is a deodorizer; it prevents infection of 
wounds and acts as a local antiseptic. Iodoform is very 
useful as a drBSsing for wounds, especially after they have 
commenced to heal. It may be used alone or mixed with 
twice its bulk of powdered boracic acid and dusted over the 
wound surface. 

Common lime. — Irritant, neutralizes acids, and is astrin- 
gent. Saturated solution which is very dilute is useful in 
diarrheas and indigestions of young animals, and may be 
given with milk quite freely. Carron oil (limewater and 
linseed oil in equal parts) is a very useful application for 
burns. Whitewashing is a satisfactory method of disin- 
fecting and cleaning up outbuildings, including stables. 

Doses. — Horses and cattle take 1 to 2 drams of the 
quicklime; sheep i to J drams, very greatly diluted in 
all cases. 



LECTURE LVII 
COMMON MEDICINES — Con^mued 

Raw linseed oil. — Used in veterinary practice to dilute 
stronger medicines in making liniments and various appli- 
cations for external use, and internally as a laxative or 
cathartic, depending upon the dose used. Very safe and 
but slightly irritating. Good for either horses, cattle, sheep, 
or swine. 

Doses. — Cattle take 2 to 4 pints; horses, 1 to 3 pints; 
sheep and hogs take J- to 1 pint. 

Rectal injections of warm water may be given after the 
oil, and it is desirable, if there is sufficient time, to prepare 
horses by several warm bran mashes before giving the oil. 

Corrosive sublimate (bichloride). — A caustic and irritant 
poison. Used externally as a caustic and antiseptic. 
Stronger solutions and ointments produce very severe 
blisters, and frequently destroy the hair follicles. 

Its chief use is as a germicide. Cheap and very satisfactory 
for disinfecting buildings and other purposes where large 
quantities must be used. Dilute solution destroys lice and 
itch mites in the proportion of 15 grains to the pint of 
water. For antiseptic and disinfecting purposes it may be 
used 4 to 7 grains to the pint. 

Epsom salts. — A saline cathartic, causes a large secretion 
of fluids from the intestinal walls, thus rendering the bowel 
contents very fluid. It is very satisfactory as a laxative 
or cathartic for cattle and sheep, not so good for horses. 
Epsom salts is useful in small doses given to horses in fever- 
ish conditions. It is very soluble in water, for it will dis- 
solve in its own weight of warm water, but is insoluble in 
alcohol. 

282 



COMMON MEDICINES 



283 



Doses. — Cattle take for cathartic 1 to 3 pounds; sheep 
and hogs take ^ to ^ pound. It is frequently desirable 
to add J to J these doses of common salt and ^ the total 
weight of powdered ginger, and give as a drench. It is 
better to give quite dilute drenches; e.g. the cow's dose 
should be dissolved in 2 to 3 pints of water, and the others 
in proportion. 

Sodium chloride (common salt). — An essential article of 
food, restorative and antiseptic. Very large doses are 




Fig. 86. — To Throw Cattle. {M. H. R.) 
Pull straight back on the rope. 

cathartic and more or less irritating. For grown cattle and 
sheep in good strength salt is a very useful cathartic. Salt 
is more commonly combined with other saline cathartics. 
It is useful as a throat wash in certain sore throats, diluted 
to 5 per cent solution in water. 

Sodium hyposulphite and sodium sulphite. — Antiseptic 
and deodorant ; especially valuable for internal administra- 
tion, to check fermentation and septic processes in the 
stomach and intestines, and therefore valuable in conditions 



284 VETERINARY STUDIES 

of diarrhea, indigestions, and hoven or bloat. It is also 
useful in small doses to control feverish conditions. Both 
the sulphite and the hyposulphite are readily soluble in 
water. 

Doses. — Horses and cattle take of the sulphite 8 to 10 
oz.; sheep and swine take 4 to 8 drams. The doses of 
hyposulphite are much smaller — about half as large as 
for the sulphite. These doses are to be given as drenches, 
well diluted, and repeated, three times daily. Smaller doses 
pay be given every half hour in cases of bloat. 
\ Saltpeter (nitrate of potash). — Mildly antiseptic, and has 
slight cathartic effect. It is diuretic; it increases the 
secretion from skin and bronchial tubes; is alterative and 
febrifuge, and useful in the treatment of all classes of ani- 
mals. Saltpeter is useful for external cooling effect when 
dissolved in water with sal ammoniac. For alterative and 
febrifuge effect it is given in about half the doses that are 
given to stimulate the kidneys. 

Saltpeter is very soluble in water, warm or cold. 

Doses. — Cattle and horses for diuretic effect, J to 2 oz. ; 
sheep and swine, |^ to 2 drams. These doses are given in 
the drinking water or as a drench. Not caustic. 

Sweet spirit of niter. — Stimulant much like alcohol or 
ether; it is antispasmodic and increases the excretion from 
skin, lungs, and kidneys. Very large doses are narcotic. 
It is very useful in cases of spasmodic colic and tympanites, 
and is a convenient heart stimulant. 

Doses. — As a stimulant and antispasmodic, horses and 
cattle take 2 to 4 oz.; hogs 2 to 4 drams. It is decom- 
posed by water, and should not be mixed with other medi- 
cines until just before giving. It is given as a drench with 
water or in sirup. As an antispasmodic it may be given to 
advantage with either opium or chloral hydrate. 

Oil of turpentine (common turpentine). — Stimulant, anti- 
septic, and destroys parasites, both external and internal. 
It is readily absorbed when swallowed, and is excreted by 
the lungs, skin, and kidneys. Overdoses irritate the mucous 



COMMON MEDICINES 



285 



membrane of these organs. For medicinal purposes it is 
used in indigestion, certain conditions of diarrhea and 
tympanites (bloating); a very useful medicine in these 
conditions and one that is usually at hand. It is slightly 
soluble in water, quite soluble in ether or alcohol or linseed 
oil. 

Doses. — Horses and cattle, as stimulant and antispas- 
modic, take 1 to 2 oz. two or three times a day for stimu- 
lating effect upon mucous membranes of the bronchial tubes, 
sldn, or kidneys. The dose for sheep and swine should be 
about ^ of these quantities. 

Opium. — Medicinal doses relieve pain and spasmodic 
conditions, reduce congestion and inflammation; check in- 
testinal secretion and peristaltic movements ; and with some 
animals produce sleep. The various preparations of opium 
are used in medicine for the purpose of relieving pain, per- 
haps more than any other agent. Opium is a typical 
anodyne (pain reliever), but there are very many conditions 
that arise in practice under which it should never be given, 
which it is not thought practical to explain in this short 
lecture further than that the person who is giving opium 
to any domestic animal must not forget that it checks in- 
testinal secretion and peristaltic movements of the intestine, 
and in this way may cause constipation at just the time 
when the reverse condition is desired. 



Dose 


Horses 


Cattle 


Sheep 


Hogs 


Crude opium . . . 
Morphine sulphate 
Tincture opium (Lau- 
danum) .... 


1-2 drs. 
3-5 grs. 

1-2 ozs. 


2-4 drs. 
3-8 grs. 

1-3 ozs. 


10-40 grs. 
H- 2 grs. 

2- 6 drs. 


10-40 grs. 
3^- 2 grs. 

2- 6 drs. 



The tincture should be diluted with water or sirup the 
same as for alcohol. 

Morphine is an active principle of opium, and shows all 
the essential physiological properties of the crude drug. 
Cattle and sheep take very large doses. Morphine and 



286 VETERINARY STUDIES 

various preparations of opium are frequently employed with 
advantage in spasmodic colic, and may be combined with 
stimulants and anodynes like ether, sweet spirit of niter, or 
chloral hydrate. It is usually advisable to give a mild 
laxative soon after the opium operates. 



INDEX 



Aborting herd, management of, 260. 
Abortion, 255. 

Disinfection in, 261. 

Infectious, 256, 258. 

Medical treatment, 262. 

Preventive treatment, 256. 

Results, 257. 

Symptoms, 257. 
Acariasis, 110. 

Accidents of pregnancy, 264. 
Actinomycosis, lumpy jaw, 146. 

Parts involved, 147. 

Prevention, 148. 

Relation to public health, 146. 

Treatment, 149. 
Afterbirth, Retention of, 267. 
Air currents, 97. 
Alcohol, 87-280. 
Aloes, 279. 
Anaemia, 66. 
Anaesthetics, 280. 
Anatomy, 1. 
Anodynes, 280. 
Anthrax, 152. 

Cause, 152. 

Course of the disease, 155. 

Diagnosis, 156. 

Distribution, 152. 

Examination post-mortem, 155. 

Introduction and spread, 153. 

Modes of infection, 152. 

Period of incubation, 154. 

Treatment, 156. 
Antispasmodics, 280. 
Aorta, 33. 
Arteries, 33. 
Articulations, 17. 
Atrophy, 71. 
Azoturia, 207. 

Causes, 208. 

Duration, 208. 

Parts affected, 207. 

Prevention, 209. 

Prevalence, 207. 

Symptoms, 208. 

Treatment, 210. 



Bacteria, 81. 

Classification of, 84. 
Bandaging, 78. 
Bladder, 55. 
Bleeding, 77. 
Blood, 32. 
Body scab, 112. 
Bog spavins, 241. 
Bones, composition of, 2. 

Kinds of, 1. 

Peculiarities of, 2. 
Bony growths, 238. 
Boracic acid, 280. 
Bots, 128. 
Brain, 27. 
Bronchi, 42. 



Caecum, 47. 
Caesarian section, 277. 
Capillaries, 33. 
Capped hock, 242. 
Carbohydrates, 49. 
/ Carbolic acid, 87, 281. 
Catarrh in sheep, 144. 
Causes and prevention of disease, 81. 
Cerebrospinal system, 26. 
Chloroform, 280. 
Choke, 217. 

Prevention, 217. 

Symptoms, 217. 

Treatment, 218. 
Circulation, 32. 
Colon, 47. 
Collapse, 72. 

Congestion of the lungs, 251. 
Constipation in swine, 251. 
Contagium, 81. 
Coronary band, 61. 
Corrosive sublimate, 88, 282. 
CreoHn, 88. 
Curb, 242. 



D 



Death, 72. 
Degenerations, 71. 
287 



288 



INDEX 



Dentition of horses, 4. 
Diaphoretics, 280. 
Digestion, 49. 
Digestive apparatus, 43. 
Dipping, 119, 
Dips, 118. 

Diseases, parasitic, 112. 
Disinfectants, 87. 
Disinfection, 86. 
Drenching, 278. 
Drenching sheep, 139. 
Dropsy, 70. 
Diuretics, 280. 

E 

Embryotomy, 276. 

Epsom salts, 282. 

Ergot, 256. 

Esophagostoma columhianum, 131. 

Esophagus, 45. 

External parasites, 125. 



Fallopian tubes, 253. 

Farcy, 168. 

Fats, 50. 

Fever, 68. 

Flies, 126. 

Food, 103. 

Food groups, 49. 

Foot, 11, 15, 59. 

Foot-and-mouth disease, 164. 

Dissemination, 165. 

Prevention, 165. 

Symptoms, 164. 

Treatment, 165. 
Foot rot, 160. 

Diagnosis, 160. 

General symptoms, 160. 

Prevention, 162. 

Treatment, 161. 
Foot scab, 113. 
Forearm, 10. 
Formalin, 88. 
Foul foot, 162. 



G 



Ganglia, 30. 
Garget, 269. 

Causes, 269. 

Prevention, 270. 

Results, 269. 

Symptoms, 269. 

Treatment, 271. 
Gases, diffusion of, 96. 
Gestation, normal period of, 255. 
Glanders, 166. 



Causes, 166. 
Diagnosis, 169. 
Incubation, 166. 
Prevention, 169. 
Symptoms, 166. 
Treatment, 170. 
Glycogen, 49. 



Head, 2. 

Head scab, 114. 

Heat, 88. 

Heat and power, source of, 23. 

Heaves, 221. 

Autopsy, 223. 

Cause, 222. 

Definition, 221. 

Prevention, 223. 

Symptoms, 222. 

Treatment, 224. 
Hemorrhage, 70. 
Hemorrhagic septicaemia, 171. 

Differential diagnosis, 176. 

Etiology, 171. 

History, 171. 

Meningeal type, 173. 

Meningeal type, symptoms, 173. 

Post mortem, 172. 

Symptoms, 172. 
Heredity, 90. 
Hip shot, 246. 
Hog cholera, 178. 

Autopsy, 180. 

Cause, 181. 

Common mistakes, 184. 

Disinfection, 186. 

How scattered, 182. 

Symptoms, 179. 

Vaccination, 184. 

Variations in virulence, 178. 
Hoof, 60. 

Matrix, 61. 
Horses, Age of, 4. 
Hoven, 213. 

Causes, 213. 

Prevention, 215. 

Symptoms, 214. 

Treatment, 214. 
Hypersemia, 65. 
Hypertrophy, 70. 



In-and-in breeding, 90. 

Infection, 86. 

Infectious abortion, causes, 258. 

Diagnosis, 259. 

Dissemination; 258. 

Effects, 259. 



INDEX 



289 



Infection, 259. 

Prevention, 259. 
Infiltration, 71. 
Inflammation, 66. 
Intestine, 45-47. 
Iodoform, 281. 



Kidneys, 53. 



Lameness, 237. 

General examination, 237. 

Location, 237. 
Laminitis, 225. 

Cause, 225. 

Prevention, 227. 

Symptoms, 225. 

Termination, 226. 
Larynx, 41. 
Laudanum, 285. 
Leg, 13. 
Lice, 125. 
Ligaments, 18. 
Limb, front, 10. 

Lime, 281. 

Linseed oU, 282. 
Liver, 46. 
Lungs, 42. 
Lymphangitis, 228. 

Cause and history, 228. 

Definition, 228. 

Prevention, 229. 

Symptoms, 228. 

Treatment, 229. 
Lymphatic system, 36. 

M 

Maggots, 79. 

Mammary glands, 53-66. 

Mange, 109. 

Cattle, 123. 

Horse, 121. 
Medicines, common, 278. 

Giving, 278. 
Milk, 57. 
Milk fever, 231. 

Air treatment, 235. 

Causes, 231. 

Prevention, 232. 

Treatment, 233. 
Minnesota station, 95. 
Mite diseases, 109. 
Morphine, 285. 
Mouth, 43. 
Muscles, involuntary, 23. 

Structure of, 22. 

Voluntary, 21. 
Muscular system, 21. 



N 

Nasal grub, 143. 
Natural ventilation, 95. 
Navicular disease, 247. 
Nematodes, 129. 
Nerves, cranial, 28. 

Spinal, 29. 
Nerving, 246. 
Nervous system, 25. 

Function of, 25. 
Nitrate of potash, 284. 
Nodiile disease, 131. 
Nostrils, 40. 



Obstetrics, 253. 
Open joint, 241. 
Opium, 285. 
Osteology, 1. 
Ovaries, 253.. 
Oxidation, 38. 



Palate, 43. 
Pancreas, 47. 
Paralysis of swine, 250. 
Parasites, external, 109. 
Parasitic diseases, 107. 
Parasitism, 107. 
Parturient paralysis, 231. 
Parturition, accidents of, 266. 

Assistance, 273. 

Causes of difficulty, 272. 

Difficult, 272. 

Dropsies in, 274. 

Faulty presentations, 272. 

Presentations, 272. 
Pathology, 65. 
Pelvis, 13. 
Pharynx, 40, 45. 
Plagues in history, 82. 
Plantar cushion, 62. 
Posterior limb, 13. 
Pregnancy, accidents of, 255. 
Proteids, 50. 



Quinsy, 252. 



Respiration, 38. 

Stages of, 38. 
Rheumatism, 249. 

Causes, 249. 

Symptoms, 249. 

Treatment, 249. 



Q 



R 



290 



INDEX 



Ribs, 8. 

Ringbones, 238. 
Ringworm, 127. 



S 



Sacrum, 7. 
Salivary glands, 44. 
Saltpeter, 284. 
Scab, spread of, 114. 

Treatment of, 117. 
Scabies, 109. 
Sensitive laminae, 61. 
Shafts and tubes, 101. 
Sheep scab, 112. 
Sheringham valve, 102. 
Shoe boH, 242. 
Shoulder, 10. 
Sidebones, 240. 
Sodium chloride, 283. 
Sodium hyposulphite and sulphite, 283. 
Soundness, 243. 

Examination for, 244. 
Spavin, 240. 
Spavins, 238. 
Spinal column, 6. 
Spinal cord, 28. 
Splints, 238, 239. 
Sporadic abortions, 255. 
Stable air, 93. 
Stable construction, 100. 
Stable space needed, 100. 
Sternum, 8. 
Stomach, 45. 
Stomach worms, 136. 
Sulphur, 89. 
Sunshine, 89. 
Sweet spirits niter, 284. 
Swill-barrel cholera, 178. 
Swine, common diseases of, 249. 
Sympathetic nervous system, 30. 
Symptomatic anthrax, 157. 

Cause, 157. 

Prevention, 158. 

Symptoms, 157. 

Treatment, 159. 

Vaccination, 158. 
Syncope, 72. 
Synovia, 19. 



Tapeworms, 129. 
Teeth, 3. 
Tendon, 22. 



Texas fever, 187. 

Causes, 187. 

Extermination, 192. 

Incubation, 188. 

Inoculation, 193. 

Post mortem, 190. 

Prevention, 191. 

Symptoms, 188. 

Transmission, 187. 

Treatment, 191. 
Thigh, 13. 
Thoroughpin, 241. 
Ticks, 127. 
Tongue, 43. 
Trachea, 41. 
Tuberculin, accuracy, 203. 

Diagnosis, 205. 

Effect on cattle, 202. 

Test, 202. 
Tuberculosis, 195. 

Diagnosis, 198. 

Infection, 196. 

Prevalence, 195. 

Prevention, 198. 

Symptoms, 197. 
Turpentine, 284. 



U 



Unsoundness, 243. 
Ureters, 54. 
Urethra, 55. 
Urinary organs, 53. 
Uterus, 253. 

Inversion of, 265. 



Vagina, 255. 
Veins, 33-35. 
Velvety tissue, 61. 
Ventilation, 93. 

Necessity of, 94. 

Needed, 99. 
Verminous bronchitis, 141. 
Vertebrae, 6. 
Volvulus, 264. 



W 



Water, 104. 
Wind puffs, 241. 
Windows, 101. 
Womb, 253. 
Wounds, 73. 
Healing of, 73. 



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